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Sy M, Nonat A, Hildebrandt N, Charbonnière LJ. Lanthanide-based luminescence biolabelling. Chem Commun (Camb) 2016; 52:5080-95. [DOI: 10.1039/c6cc00922k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Multiplexing, time-resolution, FRET…lanthanide-based biolabels reveal exceptional spectroscopic properties for bioanalytical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamadou Sy
- Laboratoire d'Ingénierie Moléculaire Appliquée à l'Analyse
- IPHC
- UMR 7178 CNRS
- Université de Strasbourg
- ECPM
| | - Aline Nonat
- Laboratoire d'Ingénierie Moléculaire Appliquée à l'Analyse
- IPHC
- UMR 7178 CNRS
- Université de Strasbourg
- ECPM
| | - Niko Hildebrandt
- NanoBioPhotonics, Institut d'Electronique Fondamentale
- Université Paris-Saclay
- Université Paris-Sud
- CNRS
- Orsay
| | - Loïc J. Charbonnière
- Laboratoire d'Ingénierie Moléculaire Appliquée à l'Analyse
- IPHC
- UMR 7178 CNRS
- Université de Strasbourg
- ECPM
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2
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Areti S, Bandaru S, Teotia R, Rao CP. Water-Soluble 8-Hydroxyquinoline Conjugate of Amino-Glucose As Receptor for La3+ in HEPES Buffer, on Whatman Cellulose Paper and in Living Cells. Anal Chem 2015; 87:12348-54. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b03723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sivaiah Areti
- Bioinorganic Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Sateesh Bandaru
- Bioinorganic Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Rohit Teotia
- Bioinorganic Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Chebrolu P. Rao
- Bioinorganic Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
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3
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Goswami S, Paul S, Manna A. Rapid and ratiometric sensor for CAN (Ce4+) through metal assisted oxidation reaction-altered through bond energy transfer (TBET): development of low cost devices (TLC plate sticks). RSC Adv 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ra07396g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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4
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Gislason K, Sigurdsson ST. Rigid 5'-6-locked phenanthroline-derived nucleosides chelated to ruthenium and europium ions. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2013. [PMID: 23177784 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.10.104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
We describe complexes of ruthenium and europium with rigid, 5'-6-locked 1,10-phenanthroline-containing nucleosides. Both nucleosides were synthesized from condensation of 5-amino-2'-deoxycytidine with the corresponding diketone. The ruthenium nucleoside displayed fluorescence characteristic of polypyridine ruthenium complexes with a maximum at 616 nm and a quantum yield of 0.011. Binding of europium to the 1,10-phenanthroline-2,9-diacid moiety of the lanthanide binding nucleoside showed formation of a 1:1 complex with emission at 570-630 nm, whose emission was enhanced by addition of two phenanthroline ligands. The lanthanide-binding nucleoside was incorporated into DNA oligonucleotides and shown to selectively bind one equivalent of europium ions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristmann Gislason
- University of Iceland, Department of Chemistry, Science Institute, Dunhaga 3, 107 Reykjavik, Iceland
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5
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Song Z, Zhang Q. Design, synthesis, and incorporation of fluorous 5-methylcytosines into oligonucleotides. J Org Chem 2011; 76:10263-8. [PMID: 22082055 DOI: 10.1021/jo2015399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
A palladium-catalyzed Negishi coupling reaction has been developed to synthesize fluorous 5-methylcytosines. These fluorous nucleosides are incorporated into the oligonucleotides that correspond to part of the promoter region of Oct4, a master gene that undergoes dynamic DNA demethylation during cellular reprogramming. The separation of the fluorous oligonucleotides from its nonfluorous analogues has been achieved through solid-phase extraction over fluorous silica, suggesting its potential use in probing DNA demethylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiquan Song
- Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
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6
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Das P, Ghosh A, Das A. Unusual Specificity of a Receptor for Nd3+ Among Other Lanthanide Ions for Selective Colorimetric Recognition. Inorg Chem 2010; 49:6909-16. [DOI: 10.1021/ic100236c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Priyadip Das
- Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSIR), G.B. Marg, Bhavnagar: 364002, Gujarat, India
| | - Amrita Ghosh
- Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSIR), G.B. Marg, Bhavnagar: 364002, Gujarat, India
| | - Amitava Das
- Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSIR), G.B. Marg, Bhavnagar: 364002, Gujarat, India
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7
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Hovinen J, Guy PM. Bioconjugation with Stable Luminescent Lanthanide(III) Chelates Comprising Pyridine Subunits. Bioconjug Chem 2008; 20:404-21. [DOI: 10.1021/bc800370s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jari Hovinen
- PerkinElmer Life and Analytical Sciences, Turku Site, POB 10, FI-20101 Turku, Finland, and PerkinElmer Incorporated, Winter Street, Waltham, Massachusetts 02451
| | - Pamela M. Guy
- PerkinElmer Life and Analytical Sciences, Turku Site, POB 10, FI-20101 Turku, Finland, and PerkinElmer Incorporated, Winter Street, Waltham, Massachusetts 02451
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8
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Ahmadian M, Klewer DA, Bergstrom DE. Palladium-mediated C5 substitution of pyrimidine nucleosides. CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN NUCLEIC ACID CHEMISTRY 2008; Chapter 1:Unit 1.1. [PMID: 18428816 DOI: 10.1002/0471142700.nc0101s00] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
One of the most efficient ways to link a reporter group to oligonucleotides is through the incorporation of a modified nucleoside during automated oligonucleotide synthesis. To be useful, it is important that the reporter group not interfere in hybridization reactions. This unit describes two linkers that can be used for the incorporation of a reporter group at the C5 position of deoxyuridine: a flexible aminoethylthioether linker, and a rigid amidopropynyl linker. The latter is sufficiently long and positioned so that the reporter group lies outside the major groove of the DNA duplex.
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9
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Liang Z, Liu Z, Gao Y. A selective colorimetric chemosensor based on calixarene framework for lanthanide ions-Dy3+ and Er3+. Tetrahedron Lett 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2007.03.086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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11
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Abstract
This review compares the chemical and physical properties of lanthanide ion complexes and of other narrow-emitting species that can be used as labels for cytometry. A series of luminescent lanthanide ion macrocyclic complexes, Quantum Dyes, which do not release or exchange their central lanthanide ion, do accept energy transfer from ligands, and are capable of covalent binding to macromolecules, including proteins and nucleic acids, is described and their properties are discussed. Two methods are described for increasing the luminescence intensity of lanthanide ion complexes, which intrinsically is not as high as that of standard fluorophores or quantum dots. One method consists of adding a complex of a second lanthanide ion in a micellar solution (columinescence); the other method produces dry preparations by evaporation of a homogeneous solution containing an added complex of a second lanthanide ion or an excess of an unbound antenna ligand. Both methods involve the Resonance Energy Transfer Enhanced Luminescence, RETEL, effect as the mechanism for the luminescence enhancement.
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12
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Takalo H, Hemmilä I, Sutela T, Latva M. Synthesis and Luminescence of Novel EuIIIComplexing Agents and Labels with 4-(Phenylethynyl)pyridine Subunits. Helv Chim Acta 2004. [DOI: 10.1002/hlca.19960790321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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13
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Mukkala VM, Liitti P, Hemmilä I, Takalo H, Matachescu C, Kankare J. Novel Thiazole-Containing Complexing Agents and Luminescence of Their Europum(III) and Terbium(III) Chelates. Helv Chim Acta 2004. [DOI: 10.1002/hlca.19960790129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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14
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Takalo H, Mukkala VM, Meriö L, Rodríguez-Ubis JC, Sedano R, Juanes O, Brunet E. Development of Luminescent Terbium(III) Chelates for Protein Labelling: Effect of triplet-state energy level. Helv Chim Acta 2004. [DOI: 10.1002/hlca.19970800204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Hovinen J, Hakala H. Versatile strategy for oligonucleotide derivatization. Introduction of lanthanide(III) chelates to oligonucleotides. Org Lett 2001; 3:2473-6. [PMID: 11483038 DOI: 10.1021/ol016093m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
[reaction: see text] Novel nucleosidic phosphoramidite blocks were synthesized by a Mitsunobu reaction between 2'-deoxy-5'-O-(4,4'-dimethoxytrityl)uridine and a primary alcohol containing a conjugate group in its structure (a protected functional group, an organic dye, or a precursor of a lanthanide(III) chelate) followed by phosphitylation. They were used in machine-assisted DNA synthesis in the standard manner. A slightly modified deprotection procedure was used for the preparation of oligonucleotide conjugates tethered to lanthanide(III) chelates. For the latter application one non-nucleosidic block was also synthesized.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Hovinen
- PerkinElmer Life Sciences, Wallac Oy, P.O. Box 10, FIN-20101 Turku, Finland.
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17
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Lopez-Crapez E, Bazin H, Andre E, Noletti J, Grenier J, Mathis G. A homogeneous europium cryptate-based assay for the diagnosis of mutations by time-resolved fluorescence resonance energy transfer. Nucleic Acids Res 2001; 29:E70. [PMID: 11452039 PMCID: PMC55817 DOI: 10.1093/nar/29.14.e70] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Oligonucleotide ligation assay (OLA) is considered to be a very useful methodology for the detection and characterization of mutations, particularly for clinical purposes. The fluorescence resonance energy transfer between a fluorescent donor and a suitable fluorophore as acceptor has been applied in the past to several scientific fields. This technique is well adapted to nucleic acid analysis such as DNA sequencing, DNA hybridization and polymerase chain reaction. We describe here a homogeneous format based on the use of a rare earth cryptate label as donor: tris-bipyridine-Eu(3+). The long-lived fluorescence of this label makes it possible to reach a high sensitivity by using a time-resolved detection mode. A non-radiative energy transfer technology, known as time-resolved amplification of cryptate emission (TRACE((R))) characterized by a temporal and spectral selectivity has been developed. The TRACE((R)) detection of characterized single nucleotide polymorphism using the OLA for allelic discrimination is proposed. We demonstrate the potentialities of this OLA-TRACE((R)) methodology through the analysis of K-ras oncogene point mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Lopez-Crapez
- Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie, C.R.L.C. Val d'Aurelle, Parc Euromédecine, 34298 Montpellier Cedex 5, France.
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18
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Alpha-Bazin B, Bazin H, Guillemer S, Sauvaigo S, Mathis G. Europium cryptate labeled deoxyuridine-triphosphate analog: synthesis and enzymatic incorporation. NUCLEOSIDES, NUCLEOTIDES & NUCLEIC ACIDS 2000; 19:1463-74. [PMID: 11092315 DOI: 10.1080/15257770008033854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis of an europium tris-bipyridine cryptate labeled 2'-deoxyuridine-5 '-triphosphate analog (K-11-dUTP) is described. This labeled triphosphate was incorporated into DNA through enzymatic reactions with terminal transferase and DNA polymerases. The enzymatic reactions were monitored by TRACE (Time Resolved Amplification of Cryptate Emission), a homogeneous method using Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) from an europium cryptate as donor to a modified allophycocyanine as acceptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Alpha-Bazin
- CIS biointernational/DIVT/Research and New technologies, Bagnols/Cèze, France
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19
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Nurmi J, Ylikoski A, Soukka T, Karp M, Lövgren T. A new label technology for the detection of specific polymerase chain reaction products in a closed tube. Nucleic Acids Res 2000; 28:E28. [PMID: 10734205 PMCID: PMC102832 DOI: 10.1093/nar/28.8.e28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel signal generation principle suitable for real time and end-point detection of specific PCR products in a closed tube is described. Linear DNA probes were labeled at their 5'-ends with a stable, fluorescent terbium chelate. The fluorescence intensity of this chelate is lower when it is coupled to single-stranded DNA than when the chelate is free in solution. The synthesized probes were used in the real time monitoring of PCR using a prototype instrument that consisted of a fluorometer coupled to a thermal cycler. When the probe anneals to a complementary target amplicon, the 5'-->3' exonucleolytic activity of DNA polymerase detaches the label from the probe. This results in an enhanced terbium fluorescence signal. Since terbium has a long excited state lifetime, its fluorescence can be measured in a time-resolved manner, which results in a low background fluorescence and a 1000-fold signal amplification. The detection method is quantitative over an extremely wide linear range (at least 10-10(7)initial template molecules). The label strategy can easily be combined with existing label technologies, such as TaqMan 5'-exonuclease assays, in order to carry out multiplex assays that do not suffer from overlapping emission peaks of the fluorophores.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Nurmi
- Department of Biotechnology, Tykistökatu 6A, 6th Floor, University of Turku, 20520 Turku, Finland.
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Ahmadian M, Zhang P, Bergstrom DE. A comparative study of the thermal stability of oligodeoxyribonucleotides containing 5-substituted 2'-deoxyuridines. Nucleic Acids Res 1998; 26:3127-35. [PMID: 9628909 PMCID: PMC147667 DOI: 10.1093/nar/26.13.3127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Two series of modified oligonucleotides based on the self-complementary dodecamer d(CGCTAATTAGCG) were synthesized. The first contained the -C identical withCCH2R linker at C5 of deoxyuridine at position 4 (T*) of d(CGCT*AATTAGCG) and the second contained the -SR linker. The goal of the study was to evaluate and compare these two types of side chains for suitability as tethers for linking reporter groups to oligonucleotides. Our primary concern was how these tethers would effect duplex stability. The modified nucleosides were synthesized by palladium-mediated coupling reactions between the substituted alkyne and 5'-(4, 4'-dimethoxytrityl)-5-iodo-2'-deoxyuridine and between a disulfide and 5-chloromercurio-2'-deoxyuridine. The C5 deoxyuridine side chains evaluated included C identical with CCH3, C identical with CCH2NHC(O)CH3, C identical with CCH2N(CH3)2, C identical with CCH2N-HC(O)C5H4N, C identical with CCH2NHC(O)C10H15, SCH3, SC6H5 and SCH2CH2NHC(O)CH3. The nucleosides containing these substituents were incorporated into oligo-deoxyribonucleotides by standard phosphoramidite methodology. Melting studies demonstrated that the sequence containing the C identical with CCH3side chain had the highest T m value (59.1 degrees C) in comparison with the control sequence (T m = 55.2 degrees C) and that any additional substituent on C3 of the propynyl group lowered the T m value relative to propynyl. Nevertheless, even the most destabilizing substituent, adamantylcarbamoyl, yielded an oligodeoxyribonucleotide that dissociated with a T m of 54 degrees C, which is only 1.2 degrees C less than the control sequence. In contrast, the thioether substituents led to lower T m values, ranging from as low as 45.1 degrees C for SPh up to 52.2 degrees C for SMe. Replacing the methyl of the SMe substituent with a CH2CH2NHC(O)CH3 tether led to no further reduction in melting temperature. The T m value of the CH2CH2NHC(O)CH3-containing oligonucleotide was less than the natural sequence by 1.6 degrees C/substituent. This is sufficiently small that it is anticipated that the C5 thioether linkage may be as useful as the acetylenic linkage for tethering reporter groups to oligonucleotides. More importantly, the thioether linkage provides a means to position functional groups to interact specifically with opposing complementary (target) sequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ahmadian
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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21
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Luyten I, Herdewijn P. Hybridization properties of base-modified oligonucleotides within the double and triple helix motif. Eur J Med Chem 1998. [DOI: 10.1016/s0223-5234(98)80016-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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22
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Vereb G, Jares-Erijman E, Selvin PR, Jovin TM. Temporally and spectrally resolved imaging microscopy of lanthanide chelates. Biophys J 1998; 74:2210-22. [PMID: 9591648 PMCID: PMC1299564 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-3495(98)77930-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The combination of temporal and spectral resolution in fluorescence microscopy based on long-lived luminescent labels offers a dramatic increase in contrast and probe selectivity due to the suppression of scattered light and short-lived autofluorescence. We describe various configurations of a fluorescence microscope integrating spectral and microsecond temporal resolution with conventional digital imaging based on CCD cameras. The high-power, broad spectral distribution and microsecond time resolution provided by microsecond xenon flashlamps offers increased luminosity with recently developed fluorophores with lifetimes in the submicrosecond to microsecond range. On the detection side, a gated microchannel plate intensifier provides the required time resolution and amplification of the signal. Spectral resolution is achieved with a dual grating stigmatic spectrograph and has been applied to the analysis of luminescent markers of cytochemical specimens in situ and of very small volume elements in microchambers. The additional introduction of polarization optics enables the determination of emission polarization; this parameter reflects molecular orientation and rotational mobility and, consequently, the nature of the microenvironment. The dual spectral and temporal resolution modes of acquisition complemented by a posteriori image analysis gated on the spatial, spectral, and temporal dimensions lead to a very flexible and versatile tool. We have used a newly developed lanthanide chelate, Eu-DTPA-cs124, to demonstrate these capabilities. Such compounds are good labels for time-resolved imaging microscopy and for the estimation of molecular proximity in the microscope by fluorescence (luminescence) resonance energy transfer and of molecular rotation via fluorescence depolarization. We describe the spectral distribution, polarization states, and excited-state lifetimes of the lanthanide chelate crystals imaged in the microscope.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Vereb
- Department of Molecular Biology, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany
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23
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Samiotaki M, Kwiatkowski M, Ylitalo N, Landegren U. Seven-color time-resolved fluorescence hybridization analysis of human papilloma virus types. Anal Biochem 1997; 253:156-61. [PMID: 9367497 DOI: 10.1006/abio.1997.2387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Identification of human papilloma virus (HPV) types is important in order to determine the risk of cervical carcinoma in women. This requires a technique to probe individual samples for multiple virus specificities. Here we describe simultaneous multicolor analysis of amplification products for any of seven amplified HPV types 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, and 45, associated with cancer of the cervix. A seminested polymerase chain reaction was performed in a single tube using a biotinylated inner primer. Sets of amplification products, immobilized on a 96-pronged manifold solid support, were rendered single stranded and probed with a mix of seven type-specific, differentially labeled oligonucleotides. These probes contained 10 or 20 lanthanide chelates at the 5' ends with seven distinct combinations of europium, terbium, and samarium ions. The seven viral strains were correctly identified by time-resolved fluorescence measurement of the specifically hybridized probes. Using this assay format, simultaneous detection of any of seven or even more target variants is possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Samiotaki
- The Beijer Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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Abstract
In the past year, a number of studies have demonstrated the utility of fluorescence resonance energy transfer as a technique for probing complex intermolecular interactions and for determining the spatial extension and geometrical characteristics of multicomponent structures composed of diverse molecular constituents, such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and even cells with viruses. The benefits of fluorescence resonance energy transfer are becoming increasingly evident to researchers who require measurements with high sensitivity, specificity, non-invasiveness, rapidity, and relative simplicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M Clegg
- Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany
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