Identification of close contacts between the sigma N (sigma 54) protein and promoter DNA in closed promoter complexes

Transcriptional regulation of soluble methane monooxygenase via enhancer-binding protein derived from Methylosinus sporium 5

Methane is a major greenhouse gas, and methanotrophs regulate the methane level in the carbon cycle. Soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) is expressed in various methanotroph genera, including Alphaproteobacteria and Gammaproteobacteria, and catalyzes the hydroxylation of methane to methanol. It has been proposed that MmoR regulates the expression of sMMO as an enhancer-binding protein under copper-limited conditions; however, details on this transcriptional regulation remain limited. Herein, we elucidate the transcriptional pathway of sMMO depending on copper ion concentration, which affects the interaction of MmoR and sigma factor. MmoR and sigma-54 (σ54) from Methylosinus sporium 5 were successfully overexpressed in Escherichia coli and purified to investigate sMMO transcription in methanotrophs. The results indicated that σ54 binds to a promoter positioned -24 (GG) and -12 (TGC) upstream between mmoG and mmoX1. The binding affinity and selectivity are lower (Kd = 184.6 ± 6.2 nM) than those of MmoR. MmoR interacts with the upstream activator sequence (UAS) with a strong binding affinity (Kd = 12.5 ± 0.5 nM). Mutational studies demonstrated that MmoR has high selectivity to its binding partner (ACA-xx-TGT). Titration assays have demonstrated that MmoR does not coordinate with copper ions directly; however, its binding affinity to UAS decreases in a low-copper-containing medium. MmoR strongly interacts with adenosine triphosphate (Kd = 62.8 ± 0.5 nM) to generate RNA polymerase complex. This study demonstrated that the binding events of both MmoR and σ54 that regulate transcription in M. sporium 5 depend on the copper ion concentration. IMPORTANCE This study provides biochemical evidence of transcriptional regulation of soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) in methanotrophs that control methane levels in ecological systems. Previous studies have proposed transcriptional regulation of MMOs, including sMMO and pMMO, while we provide further evidence to elucidate its mechanism using a purified enhancer-binding protein (MmoR) and transcription factor (σ54). The characterization studies of σ54 and MmoR identified the promoter binding sites and enhancer-binding sequences essential for sMMO expression. Our findings also demonstrate that MmoR functions as a trigger for sMMO expression due to the high specificity and selectivity for enhancer-binding sequences. The UV-visible spectrum of purified MmoR suggested an iron coordination like other GAF domain, and that ATP is essential for the initiation of enhancer elements. Binding assays indicated that these interactions are blocked by the copper ion. These results provide novel insights into gene regulation of methanotrophs.

The bacterial enhancer-dependent RNA polymerase

Transcription initiation is highly regulated in bacterial cells, allowing adaptive gene regulation in response to environment cues. One class of promoter specificity factor called sigma54 enables such adaptive gene expression through its ability to lock the RNA polymerase down into a state unable to melt out promoter DNA for transcription initiation. Promoter DNA opening then occurs through the action of specialized transcription control proteins called bacterial enhancer-binding proteins (bEBPs) that remodel the sigma54 factor within the closed promoter complexes. The remodelling of sigma54 occurs through an ATP-binding and hydrolysis reaction carried out by the bEBPs. The regulation of bEBP self-assembly into typically homomeric hexamers allows regulated gene expression since the self-assembly is required for bEBP ATPase activity and its direct engagement with the sigma54 factor during the remodelling reaction. Crystallographic studies have now established that in the closed promoter complex, the sigma54 factor occupies the bacterial RNA polymerase in ways that will physically impede promoter DNA opening and the loading of melted out promoter DNA into the DNA-binding clefts of the RNA polymerase. Large-scale structural re-organizations of sigma54 require contact of the bEBP with an amino-terminal glutamine and leucine-rich sequence of sigma54, and lead to domain movements within the core RNA polymerase necessary for making open promoter complexes and synthesizing the nascent RNA transcript.

Crystal structure of Aquifex aeolicus σN bound to promoter DNA and the structure of σN-holoenzyme

The bacterial σ factors confer promoter specificity to the RNA polymerase (RNAP). One alternative σ factor, σ^N, is unique in its structure and functional mechanism, forming transcriptionally inactive promoter complexes that require activation by specialized AAA⁺ ATPases. We report a 3.4-Å resolution X-ray crystal structure of a σ^N fragment in complex with its cognate promoter DNA, revealing the molecular details of promoter recognition by σ^N The structure allowed us to build and refine an improved σ^N-holoenzyme model based on previously published 3.8-Å resolution X-ray data. The improved σ^N-holoenzyme model reveals a conserved interdomain interface within σ^N that, when disrupted by mutations, leads to transcription activity without activator intervention (so-called bypass mutants). Thus, the structure and stability of this interdomain interface are crucial for the role of σ^N in blocking transcription activity and in maintaining the activator sensitivity of σ^N.

Protein-DNA interactions that govern AAA+ activator-dependent bacterial transcription initiation

Transcriptional control at the promoter melting step is not yet well understood. In this study, a site-directed photo-cross-linking method was used to systematically analyse component protein-DNA interactions that govern promoter melting by the enhancer-dependent Escherichia coli RNA polymerase (RNAP) containing the sigma(54) promoter specificity factor (E sigma(54)) at a single base pair resolution in three functional states. The sigma(54)-factor imposes tight control upon the RNAP by creating a regulatory switch where promoter melting nucleates, approximately 12 bp upstream of the transcription start site. Promoter melting by E sigma(54) is only triggered upon remodelling of this regulatory switch by a specialised activator protein in an ATP-hydrolysing reaction. We demonstrate that prior to DNA melting, only the sigma(54)-factor directly interacts with the promoter in the regulatory switch within the initial closed E sigma(54)-promoter complex and one intermediate E sigma(54)-promoter complex. We establish that activator-induced conformational rearrangements in the regulatory switch are a prerequisite to allow the promoter to enter the catalytic cleft of the RNAP and hence establish the transcriptionally competent open complex, where full promoter melting occurs. These results significantly advance our current understanding of the structural transitions occurring at bacterial promoters, where regulation occurs at the DNA melting step.

Protein-induced DNA bending clarifies the architectural organization of the sigma54-dependent glnAp2 promoter

Sigma54-RNA polymerase (Esigma54) predominantly contacts one face of the DNA helix in the closed promoter complex, and interacts with the upstream enhancer-bound activator via DNA looping. Up to date, the precise face of Esigma54 that contacts the activator to convert the closed complex to an open one remains unclear. By introducing protein-induced DNA bends at precise locations between upstream enhancer sequences and the core promoter of the sigma54-dependent glnAp2 promoter without changing the distance in-between, we observed a strong enhanced or decreased promoter activity, especially on linear DNA templates in vitro. The relative positioning and orientations of Esigma54, DNA bending protein and enhancer-bound activator on linear DNA were determined by in vitro footprinting analysis. Intriguingly, the locations from which the DNA bending protein exerted its optimal stimulatory effects were all found on the opposite face of the DNA helix compared with the DNA bound Esigma54 in the closed complex. Therefore, these results provide evidence that the activator must approach the Esigma54 closed complexes from the unbound face of the promoter DNA helix to catalyse open complex formation. This proposal is further supported by the modelling of activator-promoter DNA-Esigma54 complex.

Deduction of upstream sequences of Xanthomonas campestris flagellar genes responding to transcription activation by FleQ

Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Xcc), a close relative to Pseudomonas aeruginosa, is the pathogen causing black rot in cruciferous plants. In P. aeruginosa, FleQ serves as a cognate activator of sigma54 in transcription from several sigma54-dependent promoters of flagellar genes. These P. aeruginosa promoters have been analyzed for FleQ-binding sequences; however, no consensus was deduced. Xcc, although lacks fleSR, has a fleQ homologue residing among over 40 contiguously clustered flagellar genes. A fleQ mutant, Xc17fleQ, constructed by insertional mutation is deficient in FleQ protein, non-flagellated, and immobile. Transcriptional fusion assays on six putative sigma54-dependent promoters of the flagellar genes, fliE, fliQ, fliL, flgG, flgB, and flhF, indicated that each of them is also FleQ dependent. Each of these promoters has a sequence with weak consensus to 5'-gaaacCCgccgCcgctTt-3', immediately upstream of the predicted sigma54-binding site, with an imperfect inverted repeat containing a GC-rich center flanked by several A and T at 5'- and 3'-ends, respectively. Replacing this region in fliE promoter with a HindIII recognition sequence abolished the transcription, indicating that this region responds to transcription activation by FleQ.

Stable DNA opening within open promoter complexes is mediated by the RNA polymerase beta'-jaw domain

DNA opening for transcription-competent open promoter complex (OC) formation by the bacterial RNA polymerase (RNAP) relies upon a complex network of interactions between the structurally conserved and flexible modules of the catalytic beta and beta'-subunits, RNAP-associated sigma-subunit, and the DNA. Here, we show that one such module, the beta'-jaw, functions to stabilize the OC. In OCs formed by the major sigma70-RNAP, the stabilizing role of the beta'-jaw is not restricted to any particular melted DNA segment. In contrast, in OCs formed by the major variant sigma54-RNAP, the beta'-jaw and a conserved sigma54 regulatory domain co-operate to stabilize the melted DNA segment immediately upstream of the transcription start site. Clearly, regulated communication between the mobile modules of the RNAP and the functional domain(s) of the sigma subunit is required for stable DNA opening.

Mapping sigma 54-RNA polymerase interactions at the -24 consensus promoter element

The sigma 54 promoter specificity factor is distinct from sigma 70-type factors. The sigma 54-RNA polymerase binds to promoters with conserved sequence elements at -24 and -12 and utilizes specialized enhancer-binding activators to convert, through an ATP-dependent process, closed promoter complexes to open promoter complexes. The interface between sigma 54-RNA polymerase and promoter DNA is poorly characterized, contrasting with sigma 70. Here, sigma 54 was modified with strategically positioned cleavage reagents to provide physical evidence that the highly conserved RpoN box motif of sigma 54 is close to and may therefore interact with the consensus -24 promoter element. We show that the spatial relationship between the sigma 54-RNA polymerase and the -24 promoter element remains unchanged during closed to open complex conversion and transcription initiation but changes during the early elongation phase. In contrast, the spatial relationship between sigma 54-RNA polymerase and the consensus -12 promoter element changes upon conversion of the closed promoter complex to an open one. We provide evidence that some -12 promoter region-sigma 54 interactions are dependent upon either the core RNA polymerase or a fork junction DNA structure at the -12-position, indicating that DNA fork junctions can substitute for core RNAP. We also show the beta-subunit flap domain contributes to different sets of sigma-promoter DNA interactions at sigma 54- and sigma 70-dependent promoters.

Beta subunit residues 186-433 and 436-445 are commonly used by Esigma54 and Esigma70 RNA polymerase for open promoter complex formation

During transcription initiation by DNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RNAP) promoter DNA has to be melted locally to allow the synthesis of RNA transcript. Localized melting of promoter DNA is a target for genetic regulation and is poorly understood at the molecular level. The Escherichia coli RNAP holoenzyme is a six-subunit (alpha(2)betabeta'omegasigma; Esigma) protein complex. The sigma subunit is directly responsible for promoter recognition and contributes to localized DNA melting. Mutations in the beta subunit have profound effects on promoter melting by Esigma70. The sigma54 subunit is a representative of an unrelated class of the sigma subunits. Here, we determined whether mutations in the beta subunit that affect late stages of promoter complex formation by Esigma70 also influence promoter complex formation by the enhancer-dependent Esigma54. Analyses of in vitro defects in promoter complex formation and transcription initiation exhibited by mutant Esigma54 suggest that during promoter complex formation by Esigma54 and Esigma70 a common set of beta subunit sequences is used. Late stages of promoter complex formation and localized melting of promoter DNA by Esigma70 and Esigma54 thus proceed through a common pathway.

Interaction of sigma factor sigmaN with Escherichia coli RNA polymerase core enzyme

The equilibrium binding and kinetics of assembly of the DNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RNAP) sigma(N)-holoenzyme has been investigated using biosynthetically labelled 7-azatryptophyl- (7AW)sigma(N). The spectroscopic properties of such 7AW proteins allows their absorbance and fluorescence to be monitored selectively, even in the presence of high concentrations of other tryptophan-containing proteins. The 7AWsigma(N) retained its biological activity in stimulating transcription from sigma(N)-specific promoters, and in in vitro gel electrophoresis assays of binding to core RNAP from Escherichia coli. Furthermore, five Trp-->Ala single mutants of sigma(N) were shown to support growth under conditions of nitrogen limitation, and showed comparable efficiency in activating the sigma(N)-dependent nifH promoter in vivo, indicating that none of the tryptophan residues were essential for activity. The equilibrium binding of 7AWsigma(N) to core RNAP was examined by analytical ultracentrifugation. In sedimentation equilibrium experiments, absorbance data at 315 nm (which reports selectively on the distribution of free and bound 7AWsigma(N)) established that a 1:1 complex was formed, with a dissociation constant lower than 2 microM. The kinetics of the interaction between 7AWsigma(N) and core RNAP was investigated using stopped-flow spectrofluorimetry. A biphasic decrease in fluorescence intensity was observed when samples were excited at 280 nm, whereas only the slower of the two phases was observed at 315 nm. The kinetic data were analysed in terms of a mechanism in which a fast bimolecular association of sigma(N) with core RNAP is followed by a relatively slow isomerization step. The consequences of these findings on the competition between sigma(N) and the major sigma factor, sigma(70), in Escherichia coli are discussed.

Sequences within the DNA cross-linking patch of sigma 54 involved in promoter recognition, sigma isomerization, and open complex formation

The bacterial RNA polymerase holoenzyme containing the final sigma(54) subunit functions in enhancer-dependent transcription. Mutagenesis has been used to probe the function of a sequence in the final sigma(54) DNA binding domain that includes residues that cross-link to promoter DNA. Several activities of the final sigma and holoenzyme are shown to depend on the cross-linking patch. The patch contributes to promoter binding by final sigma(54), and holoenzyme and is involved in activator-dependent final sigma isomerization. As part of the final sigma(54)-holoenzyme, some residues in the patch limit basal transcription. Other cross-linking patch sequences appear to limit activator-dependent open complex formation. Deletion of 19 residues adjacent to the cross-linking patch resulted in a holoenzyme unable to respond to activator but capable of activator-independent (bypass) transcription in vitro. Overall results are consistent with the cross-linking patch directing interactions to the -12 promoter region to set basal and activated levels of transcription.

The role of region II in the RNA polymerase sigma factor sigma(N) (sigma(54))

Bacterial RNA polymerase holoenzymes containing the sigma subunit sigma(N) (sigma(54)) can form a stable closed complex with promoter DNA but only undergo transition to an open complex and transcription initiation when acted on by an activator protein. Proteins of the sigma(N) family have a conserved N-terminal region of 50 amino acids (Region I) that is separated from a conserved C-terminal region of around 360 amino acids (Region III) by a much more variable sequence of between 30 and 110 residues (Region II). We have investigated the role of Region II in Klebsiella pneumoniae sigma(N) by studying the properties of deletions of all or part of the region both in vivo and in vitro. We found that whilst Region II is not essential, deletion of all or part of it can significantly impair sigma(N) activity. Deletions have effects on DNA binding by the isolated sigma factor and on holoenzyme formation, but the most marked effects are on transition of the holoenzyme from the closed to the open complex in the presence of the activator protein.

Compilation and analysis of sigma(54)-dependent promoter sequences

Promoters recognized by the RNA-polymerase with the alternative sigma factor sigma(54) (Esigma54) are unique in having conserved positions around -24 and -12 nucleotides upstream from the transcriptional start site, instead of the typical -35 and -10 boxes. Here we compile 186 -24/-12 promoter sequences reported in the literature and generate an updated and extended consensus sequence. The use of the extended consensus increases the probability of identifying genuine -24/-12 promoters. The effect of several reported mutations at the -24/-12 elements on RNA-polymerase binding and promoter strength is discussed in the light of the updated consensus.

The hydrophobic heptad repeat in Region III of Escherichia coli transcription factor sigma 54 is essential for core RNA polymerase binding

Escherichia coli transcription factor sigma 54 contains motifs that resemble closely those used for RNA polymerase II in mammalian cells, including two hydrophobic heptad repeats, a very acidic region and a glutamine-rich region. Triple changes in hydrophobic or multiple changes in acidic residues in Region III are known to severely impair core-binding ability. To investigate whether all the changes in triple mutants are necessary for core binding, site-directed mutagenesis was performed to create single and double mutants in the leucine or isoleucine residues in the heptad repeat in Region III. Single mutants showed no discernible loss of function. Double mutants showed partial protection of the -12 promoter element of the glnAp2 promoter due to the partial loss of their ability to bind core RNA polymerase. These mutations were deleterious to the function of sigma 54, which retained only 30-40% of wild-type mRNA levels. However, double mutants retained nearly normal ability to form open complexes. Two triple mutants created during previous work lost most, if not all, of their ability to bind core RNA polymerase, to protect the -12 promoter element of the glnAp2 promoter and to open the transcription start site. The two triple mutants produced about 20% or less than 10% of the wild-type transcripts from the glnAp2 promoter. These results demonstrate that the hydrophobic heptad repeat in Region III is essential for core RNA polymerase binding. Progressive loss of hydrophobicity of the hydrophobic heptad repeat in Region III of sigma 54 resulted in a progressive loss of core-binding ability, leading to the loss of -12 promoter element recognition and mRNA production.

Functions of the sigma(54) region I in trans and implications for transcription activation

Control of transcription frequently involves the direct interaction of activators with RNA polymerase. In bacteria, the formation of stable open promoter complexes by the sigma(54) RNA polymerase is critically dependent on sigma(54) amino Region I sequences. Their presence correlates with activator dependence, and removal allows the holoenzyme to engage productively with melted DNA independently of the activator. Using purified Region I sequences and holoenzymes containing full-length or Region I-deleted sigma(54), we have explored the involvement of Region I in transcription activation. Results show that Region I in trans inhibits a reversible conformational change in the holoenzyme believed to be polymerase isomerization. Evidence is presented indicating that the holoenzyme (and not the promoter DNA per se) is one interacting target used by Region I in preventing polymerase isomerization. Activator overcomes this inhibition in a reaction requiring nucleotide hydrolysis. Region I in trans is able to inhibit activated transcription by the holoenzyme containing full-length sigma(54). Inhibition appeared to be noncompetitive with respect to the activator, suggesting that a direct activator interaction occurs with parts of the holoenzyme outside Region I. Stabilization of isomerized holoenzyme bound to melted DNA by Region I in trans occurs largely independently of the initiating nucleotide, suggesting a role for Region I in maintaining the open complex.

The sigma 54 DNA-binding domain includes a determinant of enhancer responsiveness

The bacterial sigma54 protein associates with core RNA polymerase to form a holoenzyme that functions in enhancer-dependent transcription. Isomerization of the sigma54 polymerase and its engagement with melted DNA in open promoter complexes requires nucleotide hydrolysis by an enhancer-binding activator. We show that a single amino acid substitution, RA336, in the Klebsiella pneumoniae sigma54 C-terminal DNA-binding domain allows the holoenzyme to isomerize, engage with stably melted DNA and to transcribe from transiently melting DNA without an activator. Activator responsiveness for the formation of stable open complexes remained intact. The activator-independent transcription phenotype of RA336 is shared with mutants in amino-terminal Region I sequences. Thus, in sigma54, two distinct domains function for enhancer responsiveness. A sigma54-DNA contact mediated by R336 appears to be part of a network of interactions necessary for maintaining the transcriptionally inactive state of the holoenzyme. We suggest activator functions to change these interactions and facilitate open complex formation through promoting polymerase isomerization.

Involvement of the sigmaN DNA-binding domain in open complex formation

sigmaN (sigma54) RNA polymerase holoenzyme closed complexes isomerize to open complexes in a reaction requiring nucleoside triphosphate hydrolysis by enhancer binding activator proteins. Here, we characterize Klebsiella pneumoniae sigmaN mutants, altered in the carboxy DNA-binding domain (F354A/F355A, F402A, F403A and F402A/F403A), that fail in activator-dependent transcription. The mutant holoenzymes have altered activator-dependent interactions with promoter sequences that normally become melted. Activator-dependent stable complexes accumulated slowly in vitro (F402A) and to a reduced final level (F403A, F402A/F403A, F354A/F355A). Similar results were obtained in an assay of activator-independent stable complex formation. Premelted templates did not rescue the mutants for stable preinitiation complex formation but did for deleted region I sigmaN, suggesting different defects. The DNA-binding domain substitutions are within sigmaN sequences previously shown to be buried upon formation of the wild-type holoenzyme or closed complex, suggesting that, in the mutants, alteration of the sigmaN-core and sigmaN-DNA interfaces has occurred to change holoenzyme activity. Core-binding assays with the mutant sigmas support this view. Interestingly, an internal deletion form of sigmaN lacking the major core binding determinant was able to assemble into holoenzyme and, although unable to support activator-dependent transcription, formed a stable activator-independent holoenzyme promoter complex on premelted DNA templates.

Amino-terminal sequences of sigmaN (sigma54) inhibit RNA polymerase isomerization

In bacteria, association of the specialized sigmaN protein with the core RNA polymerase subunits forms a holoenzyme able to bind promoter DNA, but unable to melt DNA and initiate transcription unless acted on by an activator protein. The conserved amino-terminal 50 amino acids of sigmaN (Region I) are required for the response to activators. We have used pre-melted DNA templates, in which the template strand is unpaired and accessible for transcription initiation, to mimic a naturally melted promoter and explore the function of Region I. Our results indicate that one activity of Region I sequences is to inhibit productive interaction of holoenzyme with pre-melted DNA. On pre-melted DNA targets, either activation of sigmaN-holoenzyme or removal of Region I allowed efficient formation of complexes in which melted DNA was sequestered by RNA polymerase. Like natural pre-initiation complexes formed on conventional DNA templates through the action of activator, such complexes were heparin-resistant and transcriptionally active. The inhibitory sigmaN Region I domain functioned in trans to confer heparin sensitivity to complexes between Region I-deleted holoenzyme and pre-melted promoter DNA. Evidence that Region I senses the conformation of the promoter was obtained from protein footprint experiments. We suggest that one function for Region I is to mask a single-strand DNA-binding activity of the holoenzyme. On the basis of extended DNA footprints of Region I-deleted holoenzyme, we also propose that Region I prevents RNA polymerase isomerization, a conformational change necessary for access to and the subsequent stable association of holoenzyme with melted DNA.

Active recruitment of sigma54-RNA polymerase to the Pu promoter of Pseudomonas putida: role of IHF and alphaCTD

The sequence elements determining the binding of the sigma54-containing RNA polymerase (sigma54-RNAP) to the Pu promoter of Pseudomonas putida have been examined. Contrary to previous results in related systems, we show that the integration host factor (IHF) binding stimulates the recruitment of the enzyme to the -12/-24 sequence motifs. Such a recruitment, which is fully independent of the activator of the system, XylR, requires the interaction of the C-terminal domain of the alpha subunit of RNAP with specific DNA sequences upstream of the IHF site which are reminiscent of the UP elements in sigma70 promoters. Our data show that this interaction is mainly brought about by the distinct geometry of the promoter region caused by IHF binding and the ensuing DNA bending. These results support the view that binding of sigma54-RNAP to a promoter is a step that can be subjected to regulation by factors (e.g. IHF) other than the sole intrinsic affinity of sigma54-RNAP for the -12/-24 site.

Involvement of the RpoN protein in the transcription of the oprE gene in Pseudomonas aeruginosa

OprE is a channel-forming outer membrane protein of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, the expression of which is induced under anaerobic conditions. We constructed various mutants and observed the effects on oprE expression. Deficiency in RpoN, an alternative sigma factor for RNA polymerase, abolished oprE expression under aerobic conditions, but did not affect the expression under anaerobic conditions. One mutation on the putative RpoN recognition site also caused reduction of oprE expression. The region 500 nucleotides upstream of the mRNA start site was required for optimal oprE transcription, which contains an AT-rich region including a putative integration host factor binding site. These results indicate that OprE production is directly or indirectly controlled by RpoN but also require some other regulatory proteins bound to the upstream region.

Transcriptional regulation of type 4 pilin genes and the site-specific recombinase gene, piv, in Moraxella lacunata and Moraxella bovis

Moraxella lacunata and Moraxella bovis use type 4 pili to adhere to epithelial tissues of the cornea and conjunctiva. Primer extension analyses were used to map the transcriptional start sites for the genes encoding the major pilin subunits (tfpQ/I) and the DNA invertase (piv), which determines pilin type expression. tfpQ/I transcription starts at a sigma54-dependent promoter (tfpQ/Ip2) and, under certain growth conditions, this transcription is accompanied by weaker upstream transcription that starts at a potential sigma70-dependent promoter (tfpQ/Ip1). piv is expressed in both M. lacunata and M. bovis from a putative sigma70-dependent promoter (pivp) under all conditions assayed. Sigma54-dependent promoters require activators in order to initiate transcription; therefore, it is likely that tfpQ/Ip2 is also regulated by an activator in Moraxella. Primer extension assays with RNA isolated from Escherichia coli containing the subcloned pilin inversion region from M. lacunata showed that pivp is used for the expression of piv; however, tfpQ/Ip2 is not used for the transcription of tfpQ/I. Transcription from tfpQ/Ip2 was activated in E. coli when the sensor (PilS) and response regulator (PilR) proteins of type 4 pilin transcription in Pseudomonas aeruginosa were expressed from a plasmid. These results suggest that the expression of the type 4 pilin in M. lacunata and M. bovis is regulated not only by a site-specific DNA inversion system but also by a regulatory system which is functionally analogous to the PilS-PilR two-component system of P. aeruginosa.

Probing the assembly of transcription initiation complexes through changes in sigmaN protease sensitivity

The alternative bacterial sigmaN RNA polymerase holoenzyme binds promoters as a transcriptionally inactive complex that is activated by enhancer-binding proteins. Little is known about how sigma factors respond to their ligands or how the responses lead to transcription. To examine the liganded state of sigmaN, the assembly of end-labeled Klebsiella pneumoniae sigmaN into holoenzyme, closed promoter complexes, and initiated transcription complexes was analyzed by enzymatic protein footprinting. V8 protease-sensitive sites in free sigmaN were identified in the acidic region II and bordering or within the minimal DNA binding domain. Interaction with core RNA polymerase prevented cleavage at noncontiguous sites in region II and at some DNA binding domain sites, probably resulting from conformational changes. Formation of closed complexes resulted in further protections within the DNA binding domain, suggesting close contact to promoter DNA. Interestingly, residue E36 becomes sensitive to proteolysis in initiated transcription complexes, indicating a conformational change in holoenzyme during initiation. Residue E36 is located adjacent to an element involved in nucleating strand separation and in inhibiting polymerase activity in the absence of activation. The sensitivity of E36 may reflect one or both of these functions. Changing patterns of protease sensitivity strongly indicate that sigmaN can adjust conformation upon interaction with ligands, a property likely important in the dynamics of the protein during transcription initiation.

Nucleoprotein complex formation by the enhancer binding protein nifA

The nitrogen fixation protein NifA is a member of the protein family activating transcription by the alternative eubacterial sigmaN (sigma54) RNA polymerase holoenzyme. Binding sites for NifA, upstream activator sequences (UASs), are remotely located. Interaction between holoenzyme bound in a closed promoter complex and NiFA is facilitated by bending of the intervening DNA by integration host factor (IHF). We have examined NifA contact with the Klebsiella pneumoniae nifH promoter UAS in the presence and absence of holoenzyme and IHF. Footprints with UV light were made on 5-BrdU-substituted DNA and DNase I and laser UV footprints on conventional DNA templates. Results establish that the consensus thymidine residues of the UAS motif 5'-TGT are in close proximity to NifA. Reactivity suggests that each UAS thymidine is not structurally equivalent. Titration of NifA binding to the UAS in the presence or absence of the closed promoter complex indicates that the interaction of NifA with the UAS is not strongly co-operative with holoenzyme or IHF, a result supportive of an activation mechanism not reliant upon simple recruitment of factors to the promoter. Laser footprints demonstrated that holoenzyme suppressed reactivity of promoter consensus -14, -15 and -16 T residues, indicating close contact. Binding of holoenzyme resulted in a specific increase in 5-BrdU reactivity at -9 within the holoenzyme binding site, likely reflecting DNA distortion. Enhanced -9 reactivity required sigmaNN-terminal sequences that are necessary for activation. Since T-9 is melted in open complexes the closed complex appears poised for melting. Open promoter complex formation was accompanied by a distinct change in laser footprint signal at -11, consistent with the view that nucleation of strand separation occurs within or close to the -12 promoter element.

Two domains within sigmaN (sigma54) cooperate for DNA binding

The sigma-N (sigmaN) subunit of the bacterial RNA polymerase is a sequence specific DNA-binding protein. The RNA polymerase holoenzyme formed with sigmaN binds to promoters in an inactive form and only initiates transcription when activated by enhancer-binding positive control proteins. We now provide evidence to show that the DNA-binding activity of sigmaN involves two distinct domains: a C-terminal DNA-binding domain that directly contacts DNA and an adjacent domain that enhances DNA-binding activity. The sequences required for the enhancement of DNA binding can be separated from the sequences required for core RNA polymerase binding. These results provide strong evidence for communication between domains within a transcription factor, likely to be important for the function of sigmaN in enhancer-dependent transcription.

Genetic analysis of the Rhizobium meliloti nifH promoter, using the P22 challenge phage system

In several genera of bacteria, the sigma54-RNA polymerase holoenzyme (E sigma54) is a minor form of RNA polymerase that is responsible for transcribing genes whose products are involved in diverse metabolic processes. E sigma54 binds to the promoters of these genes to form a closed promoter complex. An activator protein is required for the transition of this closed promoter complex to an open complex that is transcriptionally competent. In this study, the P22-based challenge phage system was used to investigate interactions between E sigma54 and the Rhizobium meliloti nifH promoter. Challenge phages were constructed in which the R. meliloti nifH promoter replaced the binding site for the Mnt protein, a repressor of the phage P22 ant gene. When a Salmonella typhimurium strain that overexpressed sigma54 was infected with these challenge phages, E sigma54 bound to the nifH promoter and repressed transcription of the ant gene as seen by the increased frequency of lysogeny. Following mutagenesis of challenge phages that carried the R. meliloti nifH promoter, mutant phages that could form plaques on an S. typhimurium strain that overexpressed sigma54 were isolated. These phages had mutations within the nifH promoter that decreased the affinity of the promoter for E sigma54. The mutations were clustered in seven highly conserved residues within the -12 and -24 regions of the nifH promoter.

A proposed architecture for the central domain of the bacterial enhancer-binding proteins based on secondary structure prediction and fold recognition

The expression of genes transcribed by the RNA polymerase with the alternative sigma factor sigma 54 (E sigma 54) is absolutely dependent on activator proteins that bind to enhancer-like sites, located far upstream from the promoter. These unique prokaryotic proteins, known as enhancer-binding proteins (EBP), mediate open promoter complex formation in a reaction dependent on NTP hydrolysis. The best characterized proteins of this family of regulators are NtrC and NifA, which activate genes required for ammonia assimilation and nitrogen fixation, respectively. In a recent IRBM course (@ontiers of protein structure prediction," IRBM, Pomezia, Italy, 1995; see web site http://www.mrc-cpe.cam.uk/irbm-course95/), one of us (J.O.) participated in the elaboration of the proposal that the Central domain of the EBPs might adopt the classical mononucleotide-binding fold. This suggestion was based on the results of a new protein fold recognition algorithm (Map) and in the mapping of correlated mutations calculated for the sequence family on the same mononucleotide-binding fold topology. In this work, we present new data that support the previous conclusion. The results from a number of different secondary structure prediction programs suggest that the Central domain could adopt an alpha/beta topology. The fold recognition programs ProFIT 0.9, 3D PROFILE combined with secondary structure prediction, and 123D suggest a mononucleotide-binding fold topology for the Central domain amino acid sequence. Finally, and most importantly, three of five reported residue alterations that impair the Central domain. ATPase activity of the E sigma 54 activators are mapped to polypeptide regions that might be playing equivalent roles as those involved in nucleotide-binding in the mononucleotide-binding proteins. Furthermore, the known residue substitution that alter the function of the E sigma 54 activators, leaving intact the Central domain ATPase activity, are mapped on region proposed to play an equivalent role as the effector region of the GTPase superfamily.

DNA-binding determinants of sigma 54 as deduced from libraries of mutations

PCR mutagenesis was used to obtain libraries of mutations in the region between amino acids 300 and 400 in the DNA-binding domain of Escherichia coli sigma 54. Two hundred changes that did not alter function were identified. These were compared with a somewhat smaller number of changes that did alter function. Several important regions were identified. Single point mutations in two of these, near amino acids 363 and 383, destroyed the ability of sigma to bind DNA, as assayed by band shift analysis. A third segment from amino acids 327 to 347 is also a candidate for contributing to DNA binding. Comparison with data in the literature leads to testable proposals for the complex mode of DNA binding that is associated with sigma 54.