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Catalán-Tatjer D, Tzimou K, Nielsen LK, Lavado-García J. Unravelling the essential elements for recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) production in animal cell-based platforms. Biotechnol Adv 2024; 73:108370. [PMID: 38692443 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2024.108370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Revised: 04/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/27/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
Recombinant adeno-associated viruses (rAAVs) stand at the forefront of gene therapy applications, holding immense significance for their safe and efficient gene delivery capabilities. The constantly increasing and unmet demand for rAAVs underscores the need for a more comprehensive understanding of AAV biology and its impact on rAAV production. In this literature review, we delved into AAV biology and rAAV manufacturing bioprocesses, unravelling the functions and essentiality of proteins involved in rAAV production. We discuss the interconnections between these proteins and how they affect the choice of rAAV production platform. By addressing existing inconsistencies, literature gaps and limitations, this review aims to define a minimal set of genes that are essential for rAAV production, providing the potential to advance rAAV biomanufacturing, with a focus on minimizing the genetic load within rAAV-producing cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Catalán-Tatjer
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
| | - Konstantina Tzimou
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
| | - Lars K Nielsen
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark; Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, University of Queensland, Australia
| | - Jesús Lavado-García
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark.
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2
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Jaiswal R, Santosh V, Braud B, Washington A, Escalante CR. Cryo-EM Structure of AAV2 Rep68 bound to integration site AAVS1: Insights into the mechanism of DNA melting. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.02.587759. [PMID: 38617369 PMCID: PMC11014581 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.02.587759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/16/2024]
Abstract
The Rep68 protein from Adeno-Associated Virus (AAV) is a multifunctional SF3 helicase that performs most of the DNA transactions required for the viral life cycle. During AAV DNA replication, Rep68 assembles at the origin and catalyzes the DNA melting and nicking reactions during the hairpin rolling replication process to complete the second-strand synthesis of the AAV genome. Here, we report the Cryo-EM structures of Rep68 bound to double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) containing the sequence of the AAVS1 integration site in different nucleotide-bound states. In the apo state, Rep68 forms a heptameric complex around DNA, with three Origin Binding Domains (OBDs) bound to the Rep Binding Site (RBS) sequence and three other OBDs forming transient dimers with them. The AAA+ domains form an open ring with no interactions between subunits and with DNA. We hypothesize the heptameric quaternary structure is necessary to load onto dsDNA. In the ATPγS-bound state, a subset of three subunits binds the nucleotide, undergoing a large conformational change, inducing the formation of intersubunit interactions interaction and interaction with three consecutive DNA phosphate groups. Moreover, the induced conformational change positions three phenylalanine residues to come in close contact with the DNA backbone, producing a distortion in the DNA. We propose that the phenylalanine residues can potentially act as a hydrophobic wedge in the DNA melting process.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. Jaiswal
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond VA, 23298
- Current address: Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Arkansas for the Medical Sciences, Little Rock AR 72205
| | - V. Santosh
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond VA, 23298
- Current address: US Army DEVCOM Chemical Biological Center, Gunpowder MD
| | - B. Braud
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond VA, 23298
| | - A. Washington
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond VA, 23298
- Current address: Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Research, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Rochester, MN 55905
| | - Carlos R. Escalante
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond VA, 23298
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3
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Tarasova E, Khayat R. Dynamics and Conformations of a Full-Length CRESS-DNA Replicase. Viruses 2023; 15:2393. [PMID: 38140634 PMCID: PMC10747457 DOI: 10.3390/v15122393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2023] [Revised: 12/03/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Circular Rep-encoding single-stranded DNA (CRESS-DNA) viruses encode for a Replicase (Rep) that is essential for viral replication. Rep is a helicase with three domains: an endonuclease, an oligomeric, and an ATPase domain (ED, OD, and AD). Our recent cryo-EM structure of the porcine circovirus 2 (PCV2) Rep provided the first structure of a CRESS-DNA Rep. The structure visualized the ED to be highly mobile, Rep to form a homo-hexamer, bound ssDNA and nucleotides, and the AD to adopt a staircase arrangement around the ssDNA. We proposed a hand-over-hand mechanism by the ADs for ssDNA translocation. The hand-over-hand mechanism requires extensive movement of the AD. Here, we scrutinize this mechanism using all-atom Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulation of Rep in three states: (1) Rep bound to ssDNA and ADP, (2) Rep bound to ssDNA, and (3) Rep by itself. Each of the 700 nsec simulations converges within 200 nsec and provides important insight into the dynamics of Rep, the dynamics of Rep in the presence of these biomolecules, and the importance of ssDNA and ADP in driving the AD to adopt the staircase arrangement around the ssDNA. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first example of an all-atom MD simulation of a CRESS-DNA Rep. This study sets the basis of further MD studies aimed at obtaining a chemical understanding of how Rep uses nucleotide binding and hydrolysis to translocate ssDNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elvira Tarasova
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, City College of New York, New York, NY 10031, USA
| | - Reza Khayat
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, City College of New York, New York, NY 10031, USA
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Tejero M, Duzenli OF, Caine C, Kuoch H, Aslanidi G. Bioengineered Hybrid Rep 2/6 Gene Improves Encapsulation of a Single-Stranded Expression Cassette into AAV6 Vectors. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:1866. [PMID: 37895215 PMCID: PMC10606878 DOI: 10.3390/genes14101866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The production of clinical-grade recombinant adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors for gene therapy trials remains a major hurdle in the further advancement of the gene therapy field. During the past decades, AAV research has been predominantly focused on the development of new capsid modifications, vector-associated immunogenicity, and the scale-up vector production. However, limited studies have examined the possibility to manipulate non-structural components of AAV such as the Rep genes. Historically, naturally isolated, or recombinant library-derived AAV capsids have been produced using the AAV serotype 2 Rep gene to package ITR2-flanked vector genomes. In the current study, we mutated four variable amino acids in the conservative part of the binding domain in AAV serotype 6 Rep to generate a Rep2/6 hybrid gene. This newly generated Rep2/6 hybrid had improved packaging ability over wild-type Rep6. AAV vectors produced with Rep2/6 exhibited similar in vivo activity as standard AAV6 vectors. Furthermore, we show that this Rep2/6 hybrid also improves full/empty capsid ratios, suggesting that Rep bioengineering can be used to improve the ratio of fully encapsulated AAV vectors during upstream manufacturing processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos Tejero
- Hormel Institute, University of Minnesota, 801 16th Avenue NE, Austin, MN 55455, USA; (M.T.)
| | - Ozgun F. Duzenli
- Hormel Institute, University of Minnesota, 801 16th Avenue NE, Austin, MN 55455, USA; (M.T.)
| | - Colin Caine
- Hormel Institute, University of Minnesota, 801 16th Avenue NE, Austin, MN 55455, USA; (M.T.)
| | - Hisae Kuoch
- Hormel Institute, University of Minnesota, 801 16th Avenue NE, Austin, MN 55455, USA; (M.T.)
| | - George Aslanidi
- Hormel Institute, University of Minnesota, 801 16th Avenue NE, Austin, MN 55455, USA; (M.T.)
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
- Institute Molecular Virology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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Shao Z, Su S, Yang J, Zhang W, Gao Y, Zhao X, Zhang Y, Shao Q, Cao C, Li H, Liu H, Zhang J, Lin J, Ma J, Gan J. Structures and implications of the C962R protein of African swine fever virus. Nucleic Acids Res 2023; 51:9475-9490. [PMID: 37587714 PMCID: PMC10516667 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkad677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Revised: 07/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023] Open
Abstract
African swine fever virus (ASFV) is highly contagious and can cause lethal disease in pigs. Although it has been extensively studied in the past, no vaccine or other useful treatment against ASFV is available. The genome of ASFV encodes more than 170 proteins, but the structures and functions for the majority of the proteins remain elusive, which hindered our understanding on the life cycle of ASFV and the development of ASFV-specific inhibitors. Here, we report the structural and biochemical studies of the highly conserved C962R protein of ASFV, showing that C962R is a multidomain protein. The N-terminal AEP domain is responsible for the DNA polymerization activity, whereas the DNA unwinding activity is catalyzed by the central SF3 helicase domain. The middle PriCT2 and D5_N domains and the C-terminal Tail domain all contribute to the DNA unwinding activity of C962R. C962R preferentially works on forked DNA, and likely functions in Base-excision repair (BER) or other repair pathway in ASFV. Although it is not essential for the replication of ASFV, C962R can serve as a model and provide mechanistic insight into the replicative primase proteins from many other species, such as nitratiruptor phage NrS-1, vaccinia virus (VACV) and other viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiwei Shao
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Shichen Su
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Jie Yang
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Weizhen Zhang
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Yanqing Gao
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Xin Zhao
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Yixi Zhang
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Qiyuan Shao
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Chulei Cao
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Huili Li
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Hehua Liu
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Jinru Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Jinzhong Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Jinbiao Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Jianhua Gan
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
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López-Astacio RA, Adu OF, Lee H, Hafenstein SL, Parrish CR. The Structures and Functions of Parvovirus Capsids and Missing Pieces: the Viral DNA and Its Packaging, Asymmetrical Features, Nonprotein Components, and Receptor or Antibody Binding and Interactions. J Virol 2023; 97:e0016123. [PMID: 37367301 PMCID: PMC10373561 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00161-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Parvoviruses are among the smallest and superficially simplest animal viruses, infecting a broad range of hosts, including humans, and causing some deadly infections. In 1990, the first atomic structure of the canine parvovirus (CPV) capsid revealed a 26-nm-diameter T=1 particle made up of two or three versions of a single protein, and packaging about 5,100 nucleotides of single-stranded DNA. Our structural and functional understanding of parvovirus capsids and their ligands has increased as imaging and molecular techniques have advanced, and capsid structures for most groups within the Parvoviridae family have now been determined. Despite those advances, significant questions remain unanswered about the functioning of those viral capsids and their roles in release, transmission, or cellular infection. In addition, the interactions of capsids with host receptors, antibodies, or other biological components are also still incompletely understood. The parvovirus capsid's apparent simplicity likely conceals important functions carried out by small, transient, or asymmetric structures. Here, we highlight some remaining open questions that may need to be answered to provide a more thorough understanding of how these viruses carry out their various functions. The many different members of the family Parvoviridae share a capsid architecture, and while many functions are likely similar, others may differ in detail. Many of those parvoviruses have not been experimentally examined in detail (or at all in some cases), so we, therefore, focus this minireview on the widely studied protoparvoviruses, as well as the most thoroughly investigated examples of adeno-associated viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A. López-Astacio
- Baker Institute for Animal Health, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Oluwafemi F. Adu
- Baker Institute for Animal Health, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Hyunwook Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Susan L. Hafenstein
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Colin R. Parrish
- Baker Institute for Animal Health, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
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7
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Mitchell MM, Leng Y, Boppana S, Britt WJ, Gutierrez Sanchez LH, Elledge SJ. Signatures of AAV-2 immunity are enriched in children with severe acute hepatitis of unknown etiology. Sci Transl Med 2023; 15:eadh9917. [PMID: 37494473 PMCID: PMC10501808 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.adh9917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute hepatitis of unknown etiology in children is under investigation in 35 countries. Although several potential etiologic agents have been investigated, a clear cause for the liver damage observed in these cases remains to be identified. Using VirScan, a high-throughput antibody profiling technology, we probed the antibody repertoires of nine cases of severe acute hepatitis of unknown etiology treated at Children's of Alabama and compared their antibody responses with 38 pediatric and 470 adult controls. We report increased adeno-associated dependoparvovirus A (AAV-A) breadth in cases relative to controls and adeno-associated virus 2 (AAV-2) peptide responses that were conserved in seven of nine cases but rarely observed in pediatric and adult controls. These findings suggest that AAV-2 is a likely etiologic agent of severe acute hepatitis of unknown etiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moriah M. Mitchell
- Division of Genetics, Department of Medicine, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Program in Systems, Synthetic, and Quantitative Biology, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Yumei Leng
- Division of Genetics, Department of Medicine, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Suresh Boppana
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - William J. Britt
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Luz Helena Gutierrez Sanchez
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatitis, and Nutrition, Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Stephen J. Elledge
- Division of Genetics, Department of Medicine, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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8
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Xie Q, Wang J, Gu C, Wu J, Liu W. Structure and function of the parvoviral NS1 protein: a review. Virus Genes 2023; 59:195-203. [PMID: 36253516 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-022-01944-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Parvoviruses possess a single-stranded DNA genome of about 5 kb, which contains two open reading frames (ORFs), one encoding nonstructural (NS) proteins, the other capsid proteins. The NS1 protein contains an N-terminal origin-binding domain, a helicase domain, and a C-terminal transactive domain, and is essential for effective viral replication and production of infectious virus. We first summarize the developments in the structure of NS1 protein, including the original binding domain and the helicase domain. We discuss the role of different DNA substrates in the oligomerization of these two domains of NS1. During the parvovirus life cycle, the NS1 protein is closely related to the viral gene expression, viral replication, and infection. We provide the current understanding of the impact of parvovirus NS1 protein mutations on its biological properties. Overall, in this review, we focus on the structure and function of the parvoviral NS1 protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qianqian Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Jigui Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Chenchen Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Jing Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Weiquan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China.
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Wu D, Liu Y, Dai Y, Wang G, Lu G, Chen Y, Li N, Lin J, Gao N. Comprehensive structural characterization of the human AAA+ disaggregase CLPB in the apo- and substrate-bound states reveals a unique mode of action driven by oligomerization. PLoS Biol 2023; 21:e3001987. [PMID: 36745679 PMCID: PMC9934407 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The human AAA+ ATPase CLPB (SKD3) is a protein disaggregase in the mitochondrial intermembrane space (IMS) and functions to promote the solubilization of various mitochondrial proteins. Loss-of-function CLPB mutations are associated with a few human diseases with neutropenia and neurological disorders. Unlike canonical AAA+ proteins, CLPB contains a unique ankyrin repeat domain (ANK) at its N-terminus. How CLPB functions as a disaggregase and the role of its ANK domain are currently unclear. Herein, we report a comprehensive structural characterization of human CLPB in both the apo- and substrate-bound states. CLPB assembles into homo-tetradecamers in apo-state and is remodeled into homo-dodecamers upon substrate binding. Conserved pore-loops (PLs) on the ATPase domains form a spiral staircase to grip and translocate the substrate in a step-size of 2 amino acid residues. The ANK domain is not only responsible for maintaining the higher-order assembly but also essential for the disaggregase activity. Interactome analysis suggests that the ANK domain may directly interact with a variety of mitochondrial substrates. These results reveal unique properties of CLPB as a general disaggregase in mitochondria and highlight its potential as a target for the treatment of various mitochondria-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damu Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Peking-Tsinghua Joint Center for Life Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Yan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuhao Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Peking-Tsinghua Joint Center for Life Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
- Academy of Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Guopeng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Peking-Tsinghua Joint Center for Life Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Guoliang Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Peking-Tsinghua Joint Center for Life Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Ningning Li
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Peking-Tsinghua Joint Center for Life Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
- Changping Laboratory, Beijing, China
| | - Jinzhong Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- * E-mail: (JL); (NG)
| | - Ning Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Peking-Tsinghua Joint Center for Life Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
- Changping Laboratory, Beijing, China
- National Biomedical Imaging Center, Peking University, Beijing, China
- * E-mail: (JL); (NG)
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10
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Xie Q, Wang J, Su J, Gu C, Wu J, Xiao J, Liu W. Inhibition of transcription of VP2 by mutations in the DNA binding domains of mink enteritis virus NS1 protein. Virus Res 2023; 323:198972. [PMID: 36261066 PMCID: PMC10194145 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2022.198972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The NS1 protein of mink enteritis virus (MEV) is a multidomain and multifunctional protein that plays a critical role in viral replication, with predicted nuclease, helicase and transactivation activities. The nuclease and helicase domains of NS1 protein are involved in interaction with viral DNA. Herein, potential amino acids critical for DNA binding in the MEV NS1 were mutated, all of which resulted in a termination of viral production from an infectious MEV clone. Although E121, H129/131, Y212 and K470/472 mutants retained their P38 and 5'UTR transactivation activity, K196/197 and K406 mutations eliminated this. Interestingly, VP2 protein was produced following transfection of F81 cells with pMEV-NS1-196K2G (K196G and K197G) and pMEV-NS1-K406G when pNS1 was co-transfected in trans, indicating that the substitutions did not affect the integrity of the DNA sequence that bound to NS1 protein but inhibited the biological properties of NS1 protein itself. The ability of NS1 protein to interact with SP1 was inhibited by both 196K2G and K406G substitutions, while 196K2G resulted in failure to bind to the DNA-binding sites in the P38 promoter, and the oligomerization of K406G was inhibited. All of these could explain the transcriptional repression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qianqian Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jigui Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jun Su
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Chenchen Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jing Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jun Xiao
- Department of Geriatrics, the Eight Medical Centre, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China.
| | - Weiquan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
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Hutin S, Ling WL, Tarbouriech N, Schoehn G, Grimm C, Fischer U, Burmeister WP. The Vaccinia Virus DNA Helicase Structure from Combined Single-Particle Cryo-Electron Microscopy and AlphaFold2 Prediction. Viruses 2022; 14:2206. [PMID: 36298761 PMCID: PMC9611036 DOI: 10.3390/v14102206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 10/02/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Poxviruses are large DNA viruses with a linear double-stranded DNA genome circularized at the extremities. The helicase-primase D5, composed of six identical 90 kDa subunits, is required for DNA replication. D5 consists of a primase fragment flexibly attached to the hexameric C-terminal polypeptide (res. 323-785) with confirmed nucleotide hydrolase and DNA-binding activity but an elusive helicase activity. We determined its structure by single-particle cryo-electron microscopy. It displays an AAA+ helicase core flanked by N- and C-terminal domains. Model building was greatly helped by the predicted structure of D5 using AlphaFold2. The 3.9 Å structure of the N-terminal domain forms a well-defined tight ring while the resolution decreases towards the C-terminus, still allowing the fit of the predicted structure. The N-terminal domain is partially present in papillomavirus E1 and polyomavirus LTA helicases, as well as in a bacteriophage NrS-1 helicase domain, which is also closely related to the AAA+ helicase domain of D5. Using the Pfam domain database, a D5_N domain followed by DUF5906 and Pox_D5 domains could be assigned to the cryo-EM structure, providing the first 3D structures for D5_N and Pox_D5 domains. The same domain organization has been identified in a family of putative helicases from large DNA viruses, bacteriophages, and selfish DNA elements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Hutin
- Institut de Biologie Structurale (IBS), Université Grenoble Alpes (UGA), Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Wai Li Ling
- Institut de Biologie Structurale (IBS), Université Grenoble Alpes (UGA), Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Nicolas Tarbouriech
- Institut de Biologie Structurale (IBS), Université Grenoble Alpes (UGA), Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Guy Schoehn
- Institut de Biologie Structurale (IBS), Université Grenoble Alpes (UGA), Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Clemens Grimm
- Biozentrum, University of Würzburg, 97070 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Utz Fischer
- Biozentrum, University of Würzburg, 97070 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Wim P. Burmeister
- Institut de Biologie Structurale (IBS), Université Grenoble Alpes (UGA), Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), 38000 Grenoble, France
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12
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Abstract
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Adeno-associated
virus (AAV) has a single-stranded DNA genome encapsidated
in a small icosahedrally symmetric protein shell with 60 subunits.
AAV is the leading delivery vector in emerging gene therapy treatments
for inherited disorders, so its structure and molecular interactions
with human hosts are of intense interest. A wide array of electron
microscopic approaches have been used to visualize the virus and its
complexes, depending on the scientific question, technology available,
and amenability of the sample. Approaches range from subvolume tomographic
analyses of complexes with large and flexible host proteins to detailed
analysis of atomic interactions within the virus and with small ligands
at resolutions as high as 1.6 Å. Analyses have led to the reclassification
of glycan receptors as attachment factors, to structures with a new-found
receptor protein, to identification of the epitopes of antibodies,
and a new understanding of possible neutralization mechanisms. AAV
is now well-enough characterized that it has also become a model system
for EM methods development. Heralding a new era, cryo-EM is now also
being deployed as an analytic tool in the process development and
production quality control of high value pharmaceutical biologics,
namely AAV vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott M Stagg
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306, United States.,Institute of Molecular Biophysics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306, United States
| | - Craig Yoshioka
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland Oregon 97239, United States
| | - Omar Davulcu
- Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 3335 Innovation Boulevard, Richland, Washington 99354, United States
| | - Michael S Chapman
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri 65211, United States
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13
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Sanchez JL, Ghadirian N, Horton NC. High-Resolution Structure of the Nuclease Domain of the Human Parvovirus B19 Main Replication Protein NS1. J Virol 2022; 96:e0216421. [PMID: 35435730 PMCID: PMC9093113 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02164-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Two new structures of the N-terminal domain of the main replication protein, NS1, of human parvovirus B19 (B19V) are presented here. This domain (NS1-nuc) plays an important role in the "rolling hairpin" replication of the single-stranded B19V DNA genome, recognizing origin of replication sequences in double-stranded DNA, and cleaving (i.e., nicking) single-stranded DNA at a nearby site known as the terminal resolution site (trs). The three-dimensional structure of NS1-nuc is well conserved between the two forms, as well as with a previously solved structure of a sequence variant of the same domain; however, it is shown here at a significantly higher resolution (2.4 Å). Using structures of NS1-nuc homologues bound to single- and double-stranded DNA, models for DNA recognition and nicking by B19V NS1-nuc are presented that predict residues important for DNA cleavage and for sequence-specific recognition at the viral origin of replication. IMPORTANCE The high-resolution structure of the DNA binding and cleavage domain of the main replicative protein, NS1, from the human-pathogenic virus human parvovirus B19 is presented here. Included also are predictions of how the protein recognizes important sequences in the viral DNA which are required for viral replication. These predictions can be used to further investigate the function of this protein, as well as to predict the effects on viral viability due to mutations in the viral protein and viral DNA sequences. Finally, the high-resolution structure facilitates structure-guided drug design efforts to develop antiviral compounds against this important human pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan L. Sanchez
- BMCB Graduate Program, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
| | - Niloofar Ghadirian
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
| | - Nancy C. Horton
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
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14
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Hurdiss DL, El Kazzi P, Bauer L, Papageorgiou N, Ferron FP, Donselaar T, van Vliet AL, Shamorkina TM, Snijder J, Canard B, Decroly E, Brancale A, Zeev-Ben-Mordehai T, Förster F, van Kuppeveld FJ, Coutard B. Fluoxetine targets an allosteric site in the enterovirus 2C AAA+ ATPase and stabilizes a ring-shaped hexameric complex. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022; 8:eabj7615. [PMID: 34985963 PMCID: PMC8730599 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abj7615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Enteroviruses are globally prevalent human pathogens responsible for many diseases. The nonstructural protein 2C is a AAA+ helicase and plays a key role in enterovirus replication. Drug repurposing screens identified 2C-targeting compounds such as fluoxetine and dibucaine, but how they inhibit 2C is unknown. Here, we present a crystal structure of the soluble and monomeric fragment of coxsackievirus B3 2C protein in complex with (S)-fluoxetine (SFX), revealing an allosteric binding site. To study the functional consequences of SFX binding, we engineered an adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase)–competent, hexameric 2C protein. Using this system, we show that SFX, dibucaine, HBB [2-(α-hydroxybenzyl)-benzimidazole], and guanidine hydrochloride inhibit 2C ATPase activity. Moreover, cryo–electron microscopy analysis demonstrated that SFX and dibucaine lock 2C in a defined hexameric state, rationalizing their mode of inhibition. Collectively, these results provide important insights into 2C inhibition and a robust engineering strategy for structural, functional, and drug-screening analysis of 2C proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel L. Hurdiss
- Virology Section, Infectious Diseases and Immunology Division, Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584CL Utrecht, Netherlands
- Cryo-Electron Microscopy, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, Netherlands
| | | | - Lisa Bauer
- Virology Section, Infectious Diseases and Immunology Division, Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584CL Utrecht, Netherlands
| | | | | | - Tim Donselaar
- Virology Section, Infectious Diseases and Immunology Division, Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584CL Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Arno L.W. van Vliet
- Virology Section, Infectious Diseases and Immunology Division, Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584CL Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Tatiana M. Shamorkina
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Joost Snijder
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Bruno Canard
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, AFMB UMR 7257, Marseille, France
| | - Etienne Decroly
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, AFMB UMR 7257, Marseille, France
| | - Andrea Brancale
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, King Edward VII Avenue, Cardiff CF10 3NB, UK
| | - Tzviya Zeev-Ben-Mordehai
- Cryo-Electron Microscopy, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Friedrich Förster
- Cryo-Electron Microscopy, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Frank J.M. van Kuppeveld
- Virology Section, Infectious Diseases and Immunology Division, Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584CL Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Bruno Coutard
- Unité des Virus Émergents (UVE: Aix-Marseille Univ-IRD 190-Inserm 1207), Marseille, France
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15
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A Structural Perspective of Reps from CRESS-DNA Viruses and Their Bacterial Plasmid Homologues. Viruses 2021; 14:v14010037. [PMID: 35062241 PMCID: PMC8780604 DOI: 10.3390/v14010037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Rolling circle replication (RCR) is ubiquitously used by cellular and viral systems for genome and plasmid replication. While the molecular mechanism of RCR has been described, the structural mechanism is desperately lacking. Circular-rep encoded single stranded DNA (CRESS-DNA) viruses employ a viral encoded replicase (Rep) to initiate RCR. The recently identified prokaryotic homologues of Reps may also be responsible for initiating RCR. Reps are composed of an endonuclease, oligomerization, and ATPase domain. Recent structural studies have provided structures for all these domains such that an overall mechanism of RCR initiation can begin to be synthesized. However, structures of Rep in complex with its various DNA substrates and/or ligands are lacking. Here we provide a 3D bioinformatic review of the current structural information available for Reps. We combine an excess of 1590 sequences with experimental and predicted structural data from 22 CRESS-DNA groups to identify similarities and differences between Reps that lead to potentially important functional sites. Experimental studies of these sites may shed light on how Reps execute their functions. Furthermore, we identify Rep-substrate or Rep-ligand structures that are urgently needed to better understand the structural mechanism of RCR.
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16
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Khan YA, White KI, Brunger AT. The AAA+ superfamily: a review of the structural and mechanistic principles of these molecular machines. Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol 2021; 57:156-187. [PMID: 34632886 DOI: 10.1080/10409238.2021.1979460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
ATPases associated with diverse cellular activities (AAA+ proteins) are a superfamily of proteins found throughout all domains of life. The hallmark of this family is a conserved AAA+ domain responsible for a diverse range of cellular activities. Typically, AAA+ proteins transduce chemical energy from the hydrolysis of ATP into mechanical energy through conformational change, which can drive a variety of biological processes. AAA+ proteins operate in a variety of cellular contexts with diverse functions including disassembly of SNARE proteins, protein quality control, DNA replication, ribosome assembly, and viral replication. This breadth of function illustrates both the importance of AAA+ proteins in health and disease and emphasizes the importance of understanding conserved mechanisms of chemo-mechanical energy transduction. This review is divided into three major portions. First, the core AAA+ fold is presented. Next, the seven different clades of AAA+ proteins and structural details and reclassification pertaining to proteins in each clade are described. Finally, two well-known AAA+ proteins, NSF and its close relative p97, are reviewed in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yousuf A Khan
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Department of Photon Science, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Center for Biomedical Informatics Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - K Ian White
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Department of Photon Science, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Axel T Brunger
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Department of Photon Science, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
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17
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Shao L, Shen W, Wang S, Qiu J. Recent Advances in Molecular Biology of Human Bocavirus 1 and Its Applications. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:696604. [PMID: 34220786 PMCID: PMC8242256 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.696604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Human bocavirus 1 (HBoV1) was discovered in human nasopharyngeal specimens in 2005. It is an autonomous human parvovirus and causes acute respiratory tract infections in young children. HBoV1 infects well differentiated or polarized human airway epithelial cells in vitro. Unique among all parvoviruses, HBoV1 expresses 6 non-structural proteins, NS1, NS1-70, NS2, NS3, NS4, and NP1, and a viral non-coding RNA (BocaSR), and three structural proteins VP1, VP2, and VP3. The BocaSR is the first identified RNA polymerase III (Pol III) transcribed viral non-coding RNA in small DNA viruses. It plays an important role in regulation of viral gene expression and a direct role in viral DNA replication in the nucleus. HBoV1 genome replication in the polarized/non-dividing airway epithelial cells depends on the DNA damage and DNA repair pathways and involves error-free Y-family DNA repair DNA polymerase (Pol) η and Pol κ. Importantly, HBoV1 is a helper virus for the replication of dependoparvovirus, adeno-associated virus (AAV), in polarized human airway epithelial cells, and HBoV1 gene products support wild-type AAV replication and recombinant AAV (rAAV) production in human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells. More importantly, the HBoV1 capsid is able to pseudopackage an rAAV2 or rHBoV1 genome, producing the rAAV2/HBoV1 or rHBoV1 vector. The HBoV1 capsid based rAAV vector has a high tropism for human airway epithelia. A deeper understanding in HBoV1 replication and gene expression will help find a better way to produce the rAAV vector and to increase the efficacy of gene delivery using the rAAV2/HBoV1 or rHBoV1 vector, in particular, to human airways. This review summarizes the recent advances in gene expression and replication of HBoV1, as well as the use of HBoV1 as a parvoviral vector for gene delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liting Shao
- Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Weiran Shen
- Department of Microbiology, Molecular Genetics and Immunology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
| | - Shengqi Wang
- Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Jianming Qiu
- Department of Microbiology, Molecular Genetics and Immunology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
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