Dr1 (NC2) is present at tRNA genes and represses their transcription in human cells

Contributions of in vitro transcription to the understanding of human RNA polymerase III transcription

Human RNA polymerase III transcribes small untranslated RNAs that contribute to the regulation of essential cellular processes, including transcription, RNA processing and translation. Analysis of this transcription system by in vitro transcription techniques has largely contributed to the discovery of its transcription factors and to the understanding of the regulation of human RNA polymerase III transcription. Here we review some of the key steps that led to the identification of transcription factors and to the definition of minimal promoter sequences for human RNA polymerase III transcription.

SINE transcription by RNA polymerase III is suppressed by histone methylation but not by DNA methylation

Short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs), such as Alu, spread by retrotransposition, which requires their transcripts to be copied into DNA and then inserted into new chromosomal sites. This can lead to genetic damage through insertional mutagenesis and chromosomal rearrangements between non-allelic SINEs at distinct loci. SINE DNA is heavily methylated and this was thought to suppress its accessibility and transcription, thereby protecting against retrotransposition. Here we provide several lines of evidence that methylated SINE DNA is occupied by RNA polymerase III, including the use of high-throughput bisulphite sequencing of ChIP DNA. We find that loss of DNA methylation has little effect on accessibility of SINEs to transcription machinery or their expression in vivo. In contrast, a histone methyltransferase inhibitor selectively promotes SINE expression and occupancy by RNA polymerase III. The data suggest that methylation of histones rather than DNA plays a dominant role in suppressing SINE transcription.

Recent insights into regulation of transcription by RNA polymerase III and the cellular functions of its transcripts

The products of transcription by the multisubunit enzyme RNA polymerase III (Pol III), such as 5S rRNA, tRNAs, U6 snRNA, are important for cell growth, proliferation and differentiation. The known range of the Pol III transcriptome has expanded over recent years, and novel functions of the newly discovered and already well known transcripts have been identified, including regulation of stress responses and apoptosis. Furthermore, transcription by Pol III has turned out to be strongly regulated, differing between diverse class III genes, among cell types and under stress conditions. The mechanisms involved in regulation of Pol III transcription are being elucidated and disturbances in that regulation have been implicated in various diseases, including cancer. This review summarizes the novel data on the regulation of RNA polymerase III transcription, including epigenetic and gene specific mechanisms and outlines recent insights into the cellular functions of the Pol III transcriptome, in particular of SINE RNAs.

mTOR associates with TFIIIC, is found at tRNA and 5S rRNA genes, and targets their repressor Maf1

Synthesis of tRNA and 5S rRNA by RNA polymerase (pol) III is regulated by the mTOR pathway in mammalian cells. The mTOR kinase localizes to tRNA and 5S rRNA genes, providing an opportunity for direct control. Its presence at these sites can be explained by interaction with TFIIIC, a DNA-binding factor that recognizes the promoters of these genes. TFIIIC contains a TOR signaling motif that facilitates its association with mTOR. Maf1, a repressor that binds and inhibits pol III, is phosphorylated in a mTOR-dependent manner both in vitro and in vivo at serine 75, a site that contributes to its function as a transcriptional inhibitor. Proximity ligation assays confirm the interaction of mTOR with Maf1 and TFIIIC in nuclei. In contrast to Maf1 regulation in yeast, no evidence is found for nuclear export of Maf1 in response to mTOR signaling in HeLa cells. We conclude that mTOR associates with TFIIIC, is recruited to pol III-transcribed genes, and relieves their repression by Maf1.

Regulation of TFIIIB during F9 cell differentiation

BACKGROUND

Differentiation of F9 embryonal carcinoma (EC) cells into parietal endoderm (PE) provides a tractable model system for studying molecular events during early and inaccessible stages of murine development. PE formation is accompanied by extensive changes in gene expression both in vivo and in culture. One of the most dramatic is the ~10-fold decrease in transcriptional output by RNA polymerase (pol) III. This has been attributed to changes in activity of TFIIIB, a factor that is necessary and sufficient to recruit pol III to promoters. The goal of this study was to identify molecular changes that can account for the low activity of TFIIIB following F9 cell differentiation.

RESULTS

Three essential subunits of TFIIIB decrease in abundance as F9 cells differentiate; these are Brf1 and Bdp1, which are pol III-specific, and TBP, which is also used by pols I and II. The decreased levels of Brf1 and Bdp1 proteins can be explained by reduced expression of the corresponding mRNAs. However, this is not the case for TBP, which is regulated post-transcriptionally. In proliferating cells, pol III transcription is stimulated by the proto-oncogene product c-Myc and the mitogen-activated protein kinase Erk, both of which bind to TFIIIB. However, c-Myc levels fall during differentiation and Erk becomes inactive through dephosphorylation. The diminished abundance of TFIIIB is therefore likely to be compounded by changes to these positive regulators that are required for its full activity. In addition, PE cells have elevated levels of the retinoblastoma protein RB, which is known to bind and repress TFIIIB.

CONCLUSION

The low activity of TFIIIB in PE can be attributed to a combination of changes, any one of which could be sufficient to inhibit pol III transcription. Declining levels of essential TFIIIB subunits and of activators that are required for maximal TFIIIB activity are accompanied by an increase in a potent repressor of TFIIIB. These events provide fail-safe guarantees to ensure that pol III output is appropriate to the diminished metabolic requirements of terminally differentiated cells.