Detection of DNA-protein crosslinks (DPCs) by novel direct fluorescence labeling methods: distinct stabilities of aldehyde and radiation-induced DPCs

DNA Adductomics: A Narrative Review of Its Development, Applications, and Future

DNA adductomics is the global study of all DNA adducts and was first proposed in 2006 by the Matsuda group. Its development has been greatly credited to the advances in mass spectrometric techniques, particularly tandem and multiple-stage mass spectrometry. In fact, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS)-based methods are virtually the sole technique with practicality for DNA adductomic studies to date. At present, DNA adductomics is primarily used as a tool to search for DNA adducts, known and unknown, providing evidence for exposure to exogenous genotoxins and/or for the molecular mechanisms of their genotoxicity. Some DNA adducts discovered in this way have the potential to predict cancer risks and/or to be associated with adverse health outcomes. DNA adductomics has been successfully used to identify and determine exogenous carcinogens that may contribute to the etiology of certain cancers, including bacterial genotoxins and an N-nitrosamine. Also using the DNA adductomic approach, multiple DNA adducts have been observed to show age dependence and may serve as aging biomarkers. These achievements highlight the capability and power of DNA adductomics in the studies of medicine, biological science, and environmental science. Nonetheless, DNA adductomics is still in its infancy, and great advances are expected in the future.

Nitrogen mustard induces dynamic nuclear protein spectrum change and DNA-protein crosslinking, with p97 mediating repair

Nitrogen mustard (NM) is a chemotherapeutic agent capable of alkylating nucleophilic proteins and DNA, causing severe cell damage. However, no reports have been on the dynamic changes in proteomics induced by NM. In this study, we established a model of acute exposure to NM for 1 h and a continuous cultured model for 24 h after NM removal (repair stage) using 16HBE cells. The nuclear protein spectrum and nuclear proteins crosslinked with DNA were analyzed, and the function of p97 during NM damage was examined. An hour of NM exposure resulted in severe changes in the nuclear protein spectrum and protein into the cell nucleus, which is mainly involved in nuclear acid-related issues. After 24 h, the return to normal process of the types and amounts of differentially expressed proteins was inhibited by si-p97. The main processes involved in si-p97 intervention were nucleocytoplasmic transport, processing in the endoplasmic reticulum, metabolic abnormalities, and DNA-response; however. An hour of exposure to NM increased DNA-protein crosslinking (DPC), total-H2AX, and p-H2AX. In contrast, si-p97 only further increased or maintained their levels at 24 h yet not at 1 h. The effect of the proteasome inhibitor, MG132, was similar to that of si-p97. The siRNA of DVC1, a partner of p97, also increased the DPC content. Both si-p97 and si-DVC1 increased the cytoplasmic levels of the proteasome (PSMD2). These results suggest acute NM exposure induces severe nuclear protein spectral changes, rapid protein influx into the nucleus, DPC formation, and DNA double-strand breaks. Furthermore, our data indicated that p97 is involved in normal protein spectrum maintenance and DPC removal after NM withdrawal, requiring the participation of DVC1 and the proteasome.

Tyrosyl-DNA phosphodiesterase 2 (Tdp2) repairs DNA-protein crosslinks and protects against double strand breaks in vivo

DNA-protein crosslinks pose a significant challenge to genome stability and cell viability. Efficient repair of DPCs is crucial for preserving genomic integrity and preventing the accumulation of DNA damage. Despite recent advances in our understanding of DPC repair, many aspects of this process, especially at the organismal level, remain elusive. In this study, we used zebrafish as a model organism to investigate the role of TDP2 (Tyrosyl-DNA phosphodiesterase 2) in DPC repair. We characterized the two tdp2 orthologs in zebrafish using phylogenetic, syntenic and expression analysis and investigated the phenotypic consequences of tdp2 silencing in zebrafish embryos. We then quantified the effects of tdp2a and tdp2b silencing on cellular DPC levels and DSB accumulation in zebrafish embryos. Our findings revealed that tdp2b is the main ortholog during embryonic development, while both orthologs are ubiquitously present in adult tissues. Notably, the tdp2b ortholog is phylogenetically closer to human TDP2. Silencing of tdp2b, but not tdp2a, resulted in the loss of Tdp2 activity in zebrafish embryos, accompanied by the accumulation of DPCs and DSBs. Our findings contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of DPC repair at the organismal level and underscore the significance of TDP2 in maintaining genome stability.

Isolation and detection of DNA-protein crosslinks in mammalian cells

DNA-protein crosslinks (DPCs) are toxic DNA lesions wherein a protein is covalently attached to DNA. If not rapidly repaired, DPCs create obstacles that disturb DNA replication, transcription and DNA damage repair, ultimately leading to genome instability. The persistence of DPCs is associated with premature ageing, cancer and neurodegeneration. In mammalian cells, the repair of DPCs mainly relies on the proteolytic activities of SPRTN and the 26S proteasome, complemented by other enzymes including TDP1/2 and the MRN complex, and many of the activities involved are essential, restricting genetic approaches. For many years, the study of DPC repair in mammalian cells was hindered by the lack of standardised assays, most notably assays that reliably quantified the proteins or proteolytic fragments covalently bound to DNA. Recent interest in the field has spurred the development of several biochemical methods for DPC analysis. Here, we critically analyse the latest techniques for DPC isolation and the benefits and drawbacks of each. We aim to assist researchers in selecting the most suitable isolation method for their experimental requirements and questions, and to facilitate the comparison of results across different laboratories using different approaches.

Signal-induced enhancer activation requires Ku70 to read topoisomerase1-DNA covalent complexes

Enhancer activation serves as the main mechanism regulating signal-dependent transcriptional programs, ensuring cellular plasticity, yet central questions persist regarding their mechanism of activation. Here, by successfully mapping topoisomerase I-DNA covalent complexes genome-wide, we find that most, if not all, acutely activated enhancers, including those induced by 17β-estradiol, dihydrotestosterone, tumor necrosis factor alpha and neuronal depolarization, are hotspots for topoisomerase I-DNA covalent complexes, functioning as epigenomic signatures read by the classic DNA damage sensor protein, Ku70. Ku70 in turn nucleates a heterochromatin protein 1 gamma (HP1γ)-mediator subunit Med26 complex to facilitate acute, but not chronic, transcriptional activation programs. Together, our data uncover a broad, unappreciated transcriptional code, required for most, if not all, acute signal-dependent enhancer activation events in both mitotic and postmitotic cells.

Isolation and Immunodetection of Enzymatic DNA-Protein Crosslinks by RADAR Assay

DNA-protein crosslinks (DPCs) are steric hindrances to DNA metabolic processes and the removal and repair of DPCs is a rapidly evolving area of research. A critical component of deciphering this repair pathway is developing techniques that detect and quantify specific types of DPCs in cells. Here we describe a protocol for direct detection of enzymatic DPCs from mammalian cells-the RADAR assay. The method involves isolating genomic DNA and DPCs from cells and binding them to nitrocellulose membrane with a vacuum slot blot manifold. DPCs are detected using antibodies raised against the protein of interest and quantified by normalizing to a DNA loading control. The RADAR assay allows for the detection of specific types of DPCs and the sensitive analysis of the DNA-protein crosslinking activity of various drugs, is adaptable across different cell types and conditions, and requires little specialized equipment.

Formation of clustered DNA damage in vivo upon irradiation with ionizing radiation: Visualization and analysis with atomic force microscopy

DNA damage causes loss of or alterations in genetic information, resulting in cell death or mutations. Ionizing radiations produce local, multiple DNA damage sites called clustered DNA damage. In this study, a complete protocol was established to analyze the damage complexity of clustered DNA damage, wherein damage-containing genomic DNA fragments were selectively concentrated via pulldown, and clustered DNA damage was visualized by atomic force microscopy. It was found that X-rays and Fe ion beams caused clustered DNA damage. Fe ion beams also produced clustered DNA damage with high complexity. Fe ion beam–induced complex DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) containing one or more base lesion(s) near the DSB end were refractory to repair, implying their lethal effects.

Clustered DNA damage is related to the biological effects of ionizing radiation. However, its precise yield and complexity (i.e., number of lesions per damaged site) in vivo remain unknown. To better understand the consequences of clustered DNA damage, a method was established to evaluate its yield and complexity in irradiated cells by atomic force microscopy. This was achieved by isolating and concentrating damaged DNA fragments from purified genomic DNA. It was found that X-rays and Fe ion beams caused clustered DNA damage in human TK6 cells, whereas Fenton's reagents did it less efficiently, highlighting clustered DNA damage as a signature of ionizing radiation. Moreover, Fe ion beams produced clustered DNA damage with high complexity. Remarkably, Fe ion beam–induced complex DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) containing one or more base lesion(s) near the DSB end were refractory to repair, implying the lethal effect of complex DSBs.

DNA-Protein Crosslinks and Their Resolution

Covalent DNA-protein crosslinks (DPCs) are pervasive DNA lesions that interfere with essential chromatin processes such as transcription or replication. This review strives to provide an overview of the sources and principles of cellular DPC formation. DPCs are caused by endogenous reactive metabolites and various chemotherapeutic agents. However, in certain conditions DPCs also arise physiologically in cells. We discuss the cellular mechanisms resolving these threats to genomic integrity. Detection and repair of DPCs require not only the action of canonical DNA repair pathways but also the activity of specialized proteolytic enzymes-including proteases of the SPRTN/Wss1 family-to degrade the crosslinked protein. Loss of DPC repair capacity has dramatic consequences, ranging from genome instability in yeast and worms to cancer predisposition and premature aging in mice and humans. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Biochemistry, Volume 91 is June 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Glyoxal damages human aortic endothelial cells by perturbing the glutathione, mitochondrial membrane potential, and mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways

Background

Exposure to glyoxal, the smallest dialdehyde, is associated with several diseases; humans are routinely exposed to glyoxal because of its ubiquitous presence in foods and the environment. The aim of this study was to examine the damage caused by glyoxal in human aortic endothelial cells.

Methods

Cell survival assays and quantitative fluorescence assays were performed to measure DNA damage; oxidative stress was detected by colorimetric assays and quantitative fluorescence, and the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways were assessed using western blotting.

Results

Exposure to glyoxal was found to be linked to abnormal glutathione activity, the collapse of mitochondrial membrane potential, and the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways. However, DNA damage and thioredoxin oxidation were not induced by dialdehydes.

Conclusions

Intracellular glutathione, members of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways, and the mitochondrial membrane potential are all critical targets of glyoxal. These findings provide novel insights into the molecular mechanisms perturbed by glyoxal, and may facilitate the development of new therapeutics and diagnostic markers for cardiovascular diseases.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12872-021-02418-3.

Repair pathways for radiation DNA damage under normoxic and hypoxic conditions: Assessment with a panel of repair-deficient human TK6 cells

Various types of DNA lesions are produced when cells are exposed to ionizing radiation (IR). The type and yield of IR-induced DNA damage is influenced by the oxygen concentration. Thus, different DNA repair mechanisms may be involved in the response of normoxic and hypoxic cells to irradiation with IR. However, differences between the repair mechanisms of IR-induced DNA damage under normoxic versus hypoxic conditions have not been clarified. Elucidating the relative contribution of individual repair factors to cell survival would give insight into the repair mechanisms operating in irradiated normoxic and hypoxic cells. In the present study, we used a panel of repair-deficient human TK6 cell lines that covered seven repair pathways. Cells were irradiated with X-rays under normoxic and hypoxic conditions, and the sensitivities of each mutant relative to the wild-type (i.e. relative sensitivity) were determined for normoxic and hypoxic conditions. The sensitivity of cells varied depending on the type of repair defects. However, for each repair mutant, the relative sensitivity under normoxic conditions was comparable to that under hypoxic conditions. This result indicates that the relative contribution of individual repair pathways to cell survival is comparable in normoxic and hypoxic cells, although the spectrum of IR-induced DNA damage in hypoxic cells differs from that of normoxic cells.

The ARK Assay Is a Sensitive and Versatile Method for the Global Detection of DNA-Protein Crosslinks

DNA-protein crosslinks (DPCs) are a frequent form of DNA lesion and are strongly inhibitive in diverse DNA transactions. Despite recent developments, the biochemical detection of DPCs remains a limiting factor for the in-depth mechanistic understanding of DPC repair. Here, we develop a sensitive and versatile assay, designated ARK, for the quantitative analysis of DPCs in cells. ARK uses sequential chaotropic and detergent-based isolation of DPCs and substantially enhances sample purity, resulting in a 5-fold increase in detection sensitivity and a 10-fold reduction in background reading. We validate the ARK assay with genetic mutants with established deficiencies in DPC repair and demonstrate its robustness by using common DPC-inducing reagents, including formaldehyde, camptothecin, and etoposide. In addition, we show that the Fanconi anemia pathway contributes to the repair of DPCs. Thus, ARK is expected to facilitate various studies aimed at understanding both fundamental biology and translational applications of DNA-protein crosslink repair.

Hu et al. develop a protocol to analyze DNA-protein crosslinking (DPC) damage. Designated the ARK assay, this method outperforms widely used assays by allowing the detection of global DPCs with improved sensitivity and expanded readout. Defective DPC repair is detected in Fanconi anemia mutant cells by this protocol.

Participation of TDP1 in the repair of formaldehyde-induced DNA-protein cross-links in chicken DT40 cells

Proteins are covalently trapped on DNA to form DNA-protein cross-links (DPCs) when cells are exposed to DNA-damaging agents. Aldehyde compounds produce common types of DPCs that contain proteins in an undisrupted DNA strand. Tyrosyl-DNA phosphodiesterase 1 (TDP1) repairs topoisomerase 1 (TOPO1) that is trapped at the 3’-end of DNA. In the present study, we examined the contribution of TDP1 to the repair of formaldehyde-induced DPCs using a reverse genetic strategy with chicken DT40 cells. The results obtained showed that cells deficient in TDP1 were sensitive to formaldehyde. The removal of formaldehyde-induced DPCs was slower in tdp1-deficient cells than in wild type cells. We also found that formaldehyde did not produce trapped TOPO1, indicating that trapped TOPO1 was not a primary cytotoxic DNA lesion that was generated by formaldehyde and repaired by TDP1. The formaldehyde treatment resulted in the accumulation of chromosomal breakages that were more prominent in tdp1-deficient cells than in wild type cells. Therefore, TDP1 plays a critical role in the repair of formaldehyde-induced DPCs that are distinct from trapped TOPO1.

Repair of trapped topoisomerase II covalent cleavage complexes: Novel proteasome-independent mechanisms

Topoisomerase II (TOP2) resolves topologically entwined duplex DNA. It generates a transient DNA double-strand break intermediate, known as TOP2 cleavage complex (TOP2cc) that contains a covalent link between TOP2 and the 5'-terminus of the incised DNA duplex. Etoposide, a frontline anticancer drug, freezes the intermediate and forms irreversible TOP2ccs. Tyrosyl-DNA phosphodiesterase 2 (TDP2) is thought to repair irreversible TOP2ccs by hydrolyzing the phosphodiester bond between TOP2 and DNA after the proteasomal degradation of trapped TOP2ccs. However, the functional cooperation between TOP2 and proteasome in the repair of trapped TOP2ccs in vivo remains unknown. In this study, we analyze the repair of etoposide-induced TOP2ccs in wild-type and TDP2-deficient (TDP2^-/-) TK6 cells in the absence and presence of MG132, a potent proteasome inhibitor. The results suggested that TOP2ccs were repaired by proteasome-dependent and proteasome-independent pathways. Both proteasome-dependent and proteasome-independent pathways were further subdivided into TDP2-dependent and TDP2-independent pathways, indicating that four pathways operate in the repair of TOP2ccs. In cell survival assays, MG132 increased the etoposide sensitivity of TDP2^-/- cells, supporting the TDP2-independent and proteasome-dependent pathway among these multiple repair pathways. We also demonstrated that TDP2 released TOP2 from DNA that contained etoposide-induced TOP2cc without proteolytic degradation in vitro. Taken together, the present findings uncover novel proteasome-independent mechanisms for the repair of TOP2ccs.

Radioprotective effect of Date syrup on radiation- induced damage in Rats

Ionizing radiation has cytotoxic and genotoxic effects caused mainly by the oxidative damage induced by free radical release. The need for radioprotectives is increasing to protect normal tissues during radiotherapy. In the present study, we investigated the radioprotective effect of Date syrup in rats subjected to whole body radiation at 6 Gy through biochemical, molecular and histopathological analysis. Significant elevations were recorded in the activities of serum ALT, AST, ALP and LDH and in the levels of all lipid profiles parameters, while the level of HDL-C was reduced. The concentration of liver MDA was elevated with depletion of hepatic glutathione (GSH) and catalase. DNA damage was evidenced by increased DNA strand breakage and DNA-protein crosslinks. Significant elevations were observed in the expression of liver TNF-α and serum activity of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP-9). Pretreatment of rats with Date syrup ameliorated the tissue damage induced by radiation as evidenced by the improvement of liver function, antioxidant status and reduction of DNA damage. Besides, liver TNF-α expression and serum MMP-9 activity were reduced. In conclusion, Date syrup could alleviate the toxic effects of ionizing radiation and thus is useful as a radioprotective in radiotherapy regimen.

Formation and degradation of nitrogen mustard-induced MGMT-DNA crosslinking in 16HBE cells

N-methyl-2,2-di(chloroethyl)amine (HN2) is a kind of bifunctional alkyltating agent, which can react with nucleophilic groups in DNA and/or protein to form HN2-bridged crosslinking of target molecules, such as DNA-protein crosslinkings (DPC). O⁶-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) is a DNA damage repair enzyme which solely repairs alkyl adduct on DNA directly. However, MGMT was detected to act as a protein cross-linked with DNA via alkylation in presence of HN2, and unexpectedly turned into a DNA damage enhancer in the form of MGMT-DNA cross-link (mDPC). Present study aimed to explore the possible ways to lessen the incorporation of MGMT into DPC as well as to save it for DNA repair. To find out the influencing factors of mDPC formation and cleavage, human bronchial epithelial cell line 16HBE was exposed to HN2 and the factors related with MGMT expression and degradation were investigated. When c-Myc, a negative transcriptional factor of MGMT was inhibited by 10058-F4, MGMT expression and mDPC formation were increased, and more γ-H2AX was also detected. Sustained treatment with O⁶BG, a specific exogenous substrate and depleter of MGMT, could reduce the level of MGMT and mDPC formation. In contrast, a transient 1h pre-treatment of O⁶GB before HN2 exposure would cause a high MGMT and mDPC level. MGMT was increasingly ubiquitinated after HN2 exposure in a time-dependent manner. At the same time, MGMT was also SUMOylated with a downward time-dependent manner compared to its ubiquitination. Inhibitors of E1, E2 or E3 ligases of ubiqutination all led to the accumulation of mDPC and total-DPC (tDPC) with the difference as that mDPC was sensitive to E1 inhibitor while tDPC more sensitive to E2 and E3 inhibitor. Our results demonstrated the control of mDPC level could be realized through transcription inhibitory effect of c-Myc, O⁶GB application, and the acceleration of mDPC ubiquitination and subsequent degradation.

Radiation-induced DNA-protein cross-links: Mechanisms and biological significance

Ionizing radiation produces various DNA lesions such as base damage, DNA single-strand breaks (SSBs), DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), and DNA-protein cross-links (DPCs). Of these, the biological significance of DPCs remains elusive. In this article, we focus on radiation-induced DPCs and review the current understanding of their induction, properties, repair, and biological consequences. When cells are irradiated, the formation of base damage, SSBs, and DSBs are promoted in the presence of oxygen. Conversely, that of DPCs is promoted in the absence of oxygen, suggesting their importance in hypoxic cells, such as those present in tumors. DNA and protein radicals generated by hydroxyl radicals (i.e., indirect effect) are responsible for DPC formation. In addition, DPCs can also be formed from guanine radical cations generated by the direct effect. Actin, histones, and other proteins have been identified as cross-linked proteins. Also, covalent linkages between DNA and protein constituents such as thymine-lysine and guanine-lysine have been identified and their structures are proposed. In irradiated cells and tissues, DPCs are repaired in a biphasic manner, consisting of fast and slow components. The half-time for the fast component is 20min-2h and that for the slow component is 2-70h. Notably, radiation-induced DPCs are repaired more slowly than DSBs. Homologous recombination plays a pivotal role in the repair of radiation-induced DPCs as well as DSBs. Recently, a novel mechanism of DPC repair mediated by a DPC protease was reported, wherein the resulting DNA-peptide cross-links were bypassed by translesion synthesis. The replication and transcription of DPC-bearing reporter plasmids are inhibited in cells, suggesting that DPCs are potentially lethal lesions. However, whether DPCs are mutagenic and induce gross chromosomal alterations remains to be determined.

Metalloprotease SPRTN/DVC1 Orchestrates Replication-Coupled DNA-Protein Crosslink Repair

The cytotoxicity of DNA-protein crosslinks (DPCs) is largely ascribed to their ability to block the progression of DNA replication. DPCs frequently occur in cells, either as a consequence of metabolism or exogenous agents, but the mechanism of DPC repair is not completely understood. Here, we characterize SPRTN as a specialized DNA-dependent and DNA replication-coupled metalloprotease for DPC repair. SPRTN cleaves various DNA binding substrates during S-phase progression and thus protects proliferative cells from DPC toxicity. Ruijs-Aalfs syndrome (RJALS) patient cells with monogenic and biallelic mutations in SPRTN are hypersensitive to DPC-inducing agents due to a defect in DNA replication fork progression and the inability to eliminate DPCs. We propose that SPRTN protease represents a specialized DNA replication-coupled DPC repair pathway essential for DNA replication progression and genome stability. Defective SPRTN-dependent clearance of DPCs is the molecular mechanism underlying RJALS, and DPCs are contributing to accelerated aging and cancer.

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DNA-protein crosslinks (DPCs) stall DNA replication and induce genomic instability

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SPARTAN (SPRTN) is a DNA replication-coupled metalloprotease which proteolyses DPCs

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SPRTN metalloprotease is a fundamental enzyme in DPC repair pathway

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Ruijs-Aalfs syndrome is caused by a defect in DPC repair due to mutations in SPRTN

Bifunctional alkylating agent-mediated MGMT-DNA cross-linking and its proteolytic cleavage in 16HBE cells

Nitrogen mustard (NM), a bifunctional alkylating agent (BAA), contains two alkyl arms and can act as a cross-linking bridge between DNA and protein to form a DNA-protein cross-link (DPC). O(6)-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT), a DNA repair enzyme for alkyl adducts removal, is found to enhance cell sensitivity to BAAs and to promote damage, possibly due to its stable covalent cross-linking with DNA mediated by BAAs. To investigate MGMT-DNA cross-link (mDPC) formation and its possible dual roles in NM exposure, human bronchial epithelial cell line 16HBE was subjected to different concentrations of HN2, a kind of NM, and we found mDPC was induced by HN2 in a concentration-dependent manner, but the mRNA and total protein of MGMT were suppressed. As early as 1h after HN2 treatment, high mDPC was achieved and the level maintained for up to 24h. Quick total DPC (tDPC) and γ-H2AX accumulation were observed. To evaluate the effect of newly predicted protease DVC1 on DPC cleavage, we applied siRNA of MGMT and DVC1, MG132 (proteasome inhibitor), and NMS-873 (p97 inhibitor) and found that proteolysis plays a role. DVC1 was proven to be more important in the cleavage of mDPC than tDPC in a p97-dependent manner. HN2 exposure induced DVC1 upregulation, which was at least partially contributed to MGMT cleavage by proteolysis because HN2-induced mDPC level and DNA damage was closely related with DVC1 expression. Homologous recombination (HR) was also activated. Our findings demonstrated that MGMT might turn into a DNA damage promoter by forming DPC when exposed to HN2. Proteolysis, especially DVC1, plays a crucial role in mDPC repair.

Copper-induced oxidative damage to the prophenoloxidase-activating system in the freshwater crayfish Procambarus clarkii

Previous studies have demonstrated copper-induced proteins damage in gill and hepatopancreas of the freshwater crayfish Procambarus clarkii, but little information is available about its effects on key component of the innate defense in haemolymph. In the present study, we evaluated the relationship between oxidative carbonylation and prophenoloxidase-activating system (proPO-AS) activity, by exposing P. clarkii to sub-lethal concentrations (1/50, 1/12, 1/6 and 1/3 of the 96 h LC50) Cu(2+) up to 96 h. Six biomarkers of oxidative stress, i.e. reactive oxygen species (ROS), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), protein carbonyl (PC), malondialdehyde (MDA) and DNA-protein crosslinks (DPCs), and six indicators of immune status, i.e. total hemocyte counts (THCs), differential hemocyte counts (DHCs), hemocyanin (HC), prophenoloxidase (proPO), serine protease (SP) and phenoloxidase (PO), were determined in haemolymph. The results indicated that there was a significant increase (P < 0.05) in the levels of ROS, PC, MDA and DPCs accompanied by markedly decreased (P < 0.05) activities of proPO, SP, PO and HC in a dose and time dependent manner. The significant and positive correlations (P < 0.01) between ROS production and the formation of PC, MDA and DPCs were observed in crayfish at 96 h. There was a significant negative correlation (P < 0.01) between the levels of protein carbonyls and the activities of proPO and SP in hemocyte lysate supernatant and PO and HC in haemolymph. Carbonylated proteins may be recognized not merely as a specific signal in oxidative stress pathways but also as a "non-self" molecule in proPO-AS. In crayfish species, copper-catalyzed protein carbonylation may be one of the main mechanisms for immunity dysfunction in proPO-AS.

Measurement of Endogenous versus Exogenous Formaldehyde-Induced DNA-Protein Crosslinks in Animal Tissues by Stable Isotope Labeling and Ultrasensitive Mass Spectrometry

DNA-protein crosslinks (DPC) arise from a wide range of endogenous and exogenous chemicals, such as chemotherapeutic drugs and formaldehyde. Importantly, recent identification of aldehydes as endogenous genotoxins in Fanconi anemia has provided new insight into disease causation. Because of their bulky nature, DPCs pose severe threats to genome stability, but previous methods to measure formaldehyde-induced DPCs were incapable of discriminating between endogenous and exogenous sources of chemical. In this study, we developed methods that provide accurate and distinct measurements of both exogenous and endogenous DPCs in a structurally specific manner. We exposed experimental animals to stable isotope-labeled formaldehyde ([(13)CD2]-formaldehyde) by inhalation and performed ultrasensitive mass spectrometry to measure endogenous (unlabeled) and exogenous ((13)CD2-labeled) DPCs. We found that exogenous DPCs readily accumulated in nasal respiratory tissues but were absent in tissues distant to the site of contact. This observation, together with the finding that endogenous formaldehyde-induced DPCs were present in all tissues examined, suggests that endogenous DPCs may be responsible for increased risks of bone marrow toxicity and leukemia. Furthermore, the slow rate of DPC repair provided evidence for the persistence of DPCs. In conclusion, our method for measuring endogenous and exogenous DPCs presents a new perspective for the potential health risks inflicted by endogenous formaldehyde and may inform improved disease prevention and treatment strategies. Cancer Res; 76(9); 2652-61. ©2016 AACR.

Aldehydes with high and low toxicities inactivate cells by damaging distinct cellular targets

Aldehydes are genotoxic and cytotoxic molecules and have received considerable attention for their associations with the pathogenesis of various human diseases. In addition, exposure to anthropogenic aldehydes increases human health risks. The general mechanism of aldehyde toxicity involves adduct formation with biomolecules such as DNA and proteins. Although the genotoxic effects of aldehydes such as mutations and chromosomal aberrations are directly related to DNA damage, the role of DNA damage in the cytotoxic effects of aldehydes is poorly understood because concurrent protein damage by aldehydes has similar effects. In this study, we have analysed how saturated and α,β-unsaturated aldehydes exert cytotoxic effects through DNA and protein damage. Interestingly, DNA repair is essential for alleviating the cytotoxic effect of weakly toxic aldehydes such as saturated aldehydes but not highly toxic aldehydes such as long α,β-unsaturated aldehydes. Thus, highly toxic aldehydes inactivate cells exclusively by protein damage. Our data suggest that DNA interstrand crosslinks, but not DNA-protein crosslinks and DNA double-strand breaks, are the critical cytotoxic DNA damage induced by aldehydes. Further, we show that the depletion of intracellular glutathione and the oxidation of thioredoxin 1 partially account for the DNA damage-independent cytotoxicity of aldehydes. On the basis of these findings, we have proposed a mechanistic model of aldehyde cytotoxicity mediated by DNA and protein damage.

DNA-protein cross-links involved in growth inhibition of rice seedlings exposed to Ga

Hydroponic experiments were conducted with rice seedlings (Oryza sativa L. cv. XZX45) exposed to gallium nitrate (Ga(3+)) to investigate the accumulation of Ga in plant tissues and phytotoxic responses. Results showed that phyto-transport of Ga was apparent, and roots were the dominant site for Ga accumulation. The total accumulation rates of Ga responded biphasically to Ga treatments by showing increases at low (1.06-8.52 mg Ga/L) and constants at high (8.52-15.63 mg Ga/L) concentrations, suggesting that accumulation kinetics of Ga followed a typical saturation curve. Higher amount of Ga accumulation in plant tissues led to significant inhibition in relative growth rate and water use efficiency in a dose-dependent manner. DNA-protein cross-links (DPCs) analysis revealed that overaccumulation of Ga in plant tissues positively stimulated formation of DPCs in roots. Likewise, the measure of root cell viability evaluated by Evan blue uptake showed a similar trend. These results suggested that Ga can be absorbed, transported, and accumulated in plant materials of rice seedlings. Overaccumulation of Ga in plant tissues provoked the formation of DPCs in roots, which resulted in cell death and growth inhibition of rice seedlings.

Formation, Accumulation, and Hydrolysis of Endogenous and Exogenous Formaldehyde-Induced DNA Damage

Formaldehyde is not only a widely used chemical with well-known carcinogenicity but is also a normal metabolite of living cells. It thus poses unique challenges for understanding risks associated with exposure. N(2-)hydroxymethyl-dG (N(2)-HOMe-dG) is the main formaldehyde-induced DNA mono-adduct, which together with DNA-protein crosslinks (DPCs) and toxicity-induced cell proliferation, play important roles in a mutagenic mode of action for cancer. In this study, N(2)-HOMe-dG was shown to be an excellent biomarker for direct adduction of formaldehyde to DNA and the hydrolysis of DPCs. The use of inhaled [(13)CD2]-formaldehyde exposures of rats and primates coupled with ultrasensitive nano ultra performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry permitted accurate determinations of endogenous and exogenous formaldehyde DNA damage. The results show that inhaled formaldehyde only reached rat and monkey noses, but not tissues distant to the site of initial contact. The amounts of exogenous adducts were remarkably lower than those of endogenous adducts in exposed nasal epithelium. Moreover, exogenous adducts accumulated in rat nasal epithelium over the 28-days exposure to reach steady-state concentrations, followed by elimination with a half-life (t1/2) of 7.1 days. Additionally, we examined artifact formation during DNA preparation to ensure the accuracy of nonlabeled N(2)-HOMe-dG measurements. These novel findings provide critical new data for understanding major issues identified by the National Research Council Review of the 2010 Environmental Protection Agency's Draft Integrated Risk Information System Formaldehyde Risk Assessment. They support a data-driven need for reflection on whether risks have been overestimated for inhaled formaldehyde, whereas underappreciating endogenous formaldehyde as the primary source of exposure that results in bone marrow toxicity and leukemia in susceptible humans and rodents deficient in DNA repair.

Developing ICP-MS/MS for the detection and determination of synthetic DNA-protein crosslink models via phosphorus and sulfur detection

Various endogenous and exogenous agents drive the un-directed formation of covalent bonds between proteins and DNA. These complex molecules are of great biological relevance, as can derive in mutations, but are difficult to study because of their heterogeneous chemical properties. New analytical approaches with sufficient detection capabilities to detect and quantify these compounds can help to standardize study models based on synthesized standards. The use of atomic spectrometry can provide quantitative information on the DNA-protein cross-link reaction yield along with basic stoichiometry of the products, based on internal elemental tags, sulfur from Cys and Met amino acids, and phosphorus from the DNA. A new instrumental approach to remove isobaric and polyatomic interferences from (31)P(+) and (32)S(+) was developed recently, with state-of-the-art for interference removal that captures (31)P(+) in Q1; it reacts with O2 in an octopole collision-reaction cell generating (47)PO(+), therefore allowing detection in Q3 without (31)NOH(+)/(48)Ca/(47)Ti interferences. Similarly, (32)S(+) is reacted to (48)SO(+), eliminating the polyatomic interferences at m/z = 32. In conjunction with the high resolving power of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), this newer technology was applied by to the product purification of a DNA-protein cross link model and some preliminary structural studies.

Induction of DNA-protein cross-links by ionizing radiation and their elimination from the genome

Ionizing radiation produces various types of DNA lesions, such as base damage, single-strand breaks, double-strand breaks (DSBs), and DNA-protein cross-links (DPCs). Of these, DSBs are the most critical lesions underlying the lethal effects of ionizing radiation. With DPCs, proteins covalently trapped in DNA constitute strong roadblocks to replication and transcription machineries, and hence can be lethal to cells. The formation of DPCs by ionizing radiation is promoted in the absence of oxygen, whereas that of DSBs is retarded. Accordingly, the contribution of DPCs to the lethal events in irradiated cells may not be negligible for hypoxic cells, such as those present in tumors. However, the role of DPCs in the lethal effects of ionizing radiation remains largely equivocal. In the present study, normoxic and hypoxic mouse tumors were irradiated with X-rays [low linear energy transfer (LET) radiation] and carbon (C)-ion beams (high LET radiation), and the resulting induction of DPCs and DSBs and their removal from the genome were analyzed. X-rays and C-ion beams produced more DPCs in hypoxic tumors than in normoxic tumors. Interestingly, the yield of DPCs was slightly but statistically significantly greater (1.3- to 1.5-fold) for C-ion beams than for X-rays. Both X-rays and C-ion beams generated two types of DPC that differed according to their rate of removal from the genome. This was also the case for DSBs. The half-lives of the rapidly removed components of DPCs and DSBs were similar (<1 h), but those of the slowly removed components of DPCs and DSBs were markedly different (3.9-5 h for DSBs versus 63-70 h for DPCs). The long half-life and abundance of the slowly removed DPCs render them persistent in DNA, which may impede DNA transactions and confer deleterious effects on cells in conjunction with DSBs.

Heterochromatin domain number correlates with X-ray and carbon-ion radiation resistance in cancer cells

Although it is known that cancer cells can develop radiation resistance after repeated exposures to X rays, the underlying mechanisms and characteristics of this radiation-induced resistance of cancer cells are not well understood. Additionally, it is not known whether cells that develop X-ray resistance also would develop resistance to other types of radiation such as heavy-ions including carbon ions (C-ion). In this study, we established X-ray resistant cancer cell lines by delivering repeated exposures to X rays, and then assessed whether the cells were resistant to carbon ions. The mouse squamous cell carcinoma cell line, NR-S1, was X irradiated six times with 10 Gy, and the X-ray resistant cancer cells named X60 and ten subclones were established. Significant X-ray resistance was induced in four of the subclones (X60, X60-H2, X60-A3 and X60-B12). The X60 cells and all of the subclones were resistant to carbon ions. The correlation analysis between radioresistance and morphological characteristics of these cells showed that X-ray (R=0.74) and C-ion (R=0.79) resistance correlated strongly with the number of heterochromatin domains. Moreover, the numbers of γ-H2AX foci remaining in irradiated X60 cells and radioresistant subclones X60-A3 and X60-H2 were lower than in the NR-S1 cells after X-ray or C-ion irradiation, indicating that X60 cells and the radioresistant subclones rapidly repaired the DNA double-strand breaks compared with NR-S1 cells. Our findings suggest that the underlying causal mechanisms of X-ray and C-ion radiation resistance may overlap, and that an increase in heterochromatin domain number may be an indicator of X-ray and C-ion resistance.

The endogenous exposome

The concept of the Exposome is a compilation of diseases and one's lifetime exposure to chemicals, whether the exposure comes from environmental, dietary, or occupational exposures; or endogenous chemicals that are formed from normal metabolism, inflammation, oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, infections, and other natural metabolic processes such as alteration of the gut microbiome. In this review, we have focused on the endogenous exposome, the DNA damage that arises from the production of endogenous electrophilic molecules in our cells. It provides quantitative data on endogenous DNA damage and its relationship to mutagenesis, with emphasis on when exogenous chemical exposures that produce identical DNA adducts to those arising from normal metabolism cause significant increases in total identical DNA adducts. We have utilized stable isotope labeled chemical exposures of animals and cells, so that accurate relationships between endogenous and exogenous exposures can be determined. Advances in mass spectrometry have vastly increased both the sensitivity and accuracy of such studies. Furthermore, we have clear evidence of which sources of exposure drive low dose biology that results in mutations and disease. These data provide much needed information to impact quantitative risk assessments, in the hope of moving towards the use of science, rather than default assumptions.

Ultrasensitive isolation, identification and quantification of DNA-protein adducts by ELISA-based RADAR assay

Enzymes that form transient DNA-protein covalent complexes are targets for several potent classes of drugs used to treat infectious disease and cancer, making it important to establish robust and rapid procedures for analysis of these complexes. We report a method for isolation of DNA-protein adducts and their identification and quantification, using techniques compatible with high-throughput screening. This method is based on the RADAR assay for DNA adducts that we previously developed (Kiianitsa and Maizels (2013) A rapid and sensitive assay for DNA-protein covalent complexes in living cells. Nucleic Acids Res., 41:e104), but incorporates three key new steps of broad applicability. (i) Silica-assisted ethanol/isopropanol precipitation ensures reproducible and efficient recovery of DNA and DNA-protein adducts at low centrifugal forces, enabling cell culture and DNA precipitation to be carried out in a single microtiter plate. (ii) Rigorous purification of DNA-protein adducts by a procedure that eliminates free proteins and free nucleic acids, generating samples suitable for detection of novel protein adducts (e.g. by mass spectroscopy). (iii) Identification and quantification of DNA-protein adducts by direct ELISA assay. The ELISA-based RADAR assay can detect Top1-DNA and Top2a-DNA adducts in human cells, and gyrase-DNA adducts in Escherichia coli. This approach will be useful for discovery and characterization of new drugs to treat infectious disease and cancer, and for development of companion diagnostics assays for individualized medicine.

Oxidatively generated base damage to cellular DNA by hydroxyl radical and one-electron oxidants: similarities and differences

Hydroxyl radical (OH) and one-electron oxidants that may be endogenously formed through oxidative metabolism, phagocytosis, inflammation and pathological conditions constitute the main sources of oxidatively generated damage to cellular DNA. It is worth mentioning that exposure of cells to exogenous physical agents (UV light, high intensity UV laser, ionizing radiation) and chemicals may also induce oxidatively generated damage to DNA. Emphasis is placed in this short review article on the mechanistic aspects of OH and one-electron oxidant-mediated formation of single and more complex damage (tandem lesions, intra- and interstrand cross-links, DNA-protein cross-links) in cellular DNA arising from one radical hit. This concerns DNA modifications that have been accurately measured using suitable analytical methods such as high performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry. Evidence is provided that OH and one-electron oxidants after generating neutral radicals and base radical cations respectively may partly induce common degradation pathways. In addition, selective oxidative reactions giving rise to specific degradation products of OH and one-electron oxidation reactions that can be used as representative biomarkers of these oxidants have been identified.

Genotoxic anti-cancer agents and their relationship to DNA damage, mitosis, and checkpoint adaptation in proliferating cancer cells

When a human cell detects damaged DNA, it initiates the DNA damage response (DDR) that permits it to repair the damage and avoid transmitting it to daughter cells. Despite this response, changes to the genome occur and some cells, such as proliferating cancer cells, are prone to genome instability. The cellular processes that lead to genomic changes after a genotoxic event are not well understood. Our research focuses on the relationship between genotoxic cancer drugs and checkpoint adaptation, which is the process of mitosis with damaged DNA. We examine the types of DNA damage induced by widely used cancer drugs and describe their effects upon proliferating cancer cells. There is evidence that cell death caused by genotoxic cancer drugs in some cases includes exiting a DNA damage cell cycle arrest and entry into mitosis. Furthermore, some cells are able to survive this process at a time when the genome is most susceptible to change or rearrangement. Checkpoint adaptation is poorly characterised in human cells; we predict that increasing our understanding of this pathway may help to understand genomic instability in cancer cells and provide insight into methods to improve the efficacy of current cancer therapies.

OH radicals from the indirect actions of X-rays induce cell lethality and mediate the majority of the oxygen enhancement effect

We examined OH radical-mediated indirect actions from X irradiation on cell killing in wild-type Chinese hamster ovary cell lines (CHO and AA8) under oxic and hypoxic conditions, and compared the contribution of direct and indirect actions under both conditions. The contribution of indirect action on cell killing can be estimated from the maximum degree of protection by dimethylsulfoxide, which suppresses indirect action by quenching OH radicals without affecting the direct action of X rays on cell killing. The contributions of indirect action on cell killing of CHO cells were 76% and 50% under oxic and hypoxic conditions, respectively, and those for AA8 cells were 85% and 47%, respectively. Therefore, the indirect action on cell killing was enhanced by oxygen during X irradiation in both cell lines tested. Oxygen enhancement ratios (OERs) at the 10% survival level (D10 or LD90) for CHO and AA8 cells were 2.68 ± 0.15 and 2.76 ± 0.08, respectively. OERs were evaluated separately for indirect and direct actions, which gave the values of 3.75 and 2.01 for CHO, and 4.11 and 1.32 for AA8 cells, respectively. Thus the generally accepted OER value of ∼3 is best understood as the average of the OER values for both indirect and direct actions. These results imply that both indirect and direct actions on cell killing require oxygen for the majority of lethal DNA damage, however, oxygen plays a larger role in indirect than for direct effects. Conversely, the lethal damage induced by the direct action of X rays are less affected by oxygen concentration.

The effect of microdosimetric 12C6+ heavy ion irradiation and Mg2+ on canthaxanthin production in a novel strain of Dietzia natronolimnaea

Background

Dietzia natronolimnaea is one of the most important bacterial bioresources for high efficiency canthaxanthin production. It produces the robust and stable pigment canthaxanthin, which is of special interest for the development of integrated biorefineries. Mutagenesis employing ¹²C⁶⁺ irradiation is a novel technique commonly used to improve microorganism productivity. This study presents a promising route to obtaining the highest feasible levels of biomass dry weight (BDW), and total canthaxanthin by using a microdosimetric model of ¹²C⁶⁺ irradiation mutation in combination with the optimization of nutrient medium components.

Results

This work characterized the rate of both lethal and non-lethal dose mutations for ¹²C⁶⁺ irradiation and the microdosimetric kinetic model using the model organism, D. natronolimnaea svgcc1.2736. Irradiation with ¹²C⁶⁺ ions resulted in enhanced production of canthaxanthin, and is therefore an effective method for strain improvement of D. natronolimnaea svgcc1.2736. Based on these results an optimal dose of 0.5–4.5 Gy, Linear energy transfer (LET) of 80 keV μm^-1and energy of 60 MeV u^-1 for ¹²C⁶⁺ irradiation are ideal for optimum and specific production of canthaxanthin in the bacterium. Second-order empirical calculations displaying high R-squared (0.996) values between the responses and independent variables were derived from validation experiments using response surface methodology. The highest canthaxanthin yield (8.14 mg) was obtained with an optimized growth medium containing 21.5 g L^-1 D-glucose, 23.5 g L^-1 mannose and 25 ppm Mg²⁺ in 1 L with an irradiation dose of 4.5 Gy.

Conclusions

The microdosimetric ¹²C⁶⁺ irradiation model was an effective mutagenic technique for the strain improvement of D. natronolimnaea svgcc1.2736 specifically for enhanced canthaxanthin production. At the very least, random mutagenesis methods using ¹²C⁶⁺ions can be used as a first step in a combined approach with long-term continuous fermentation processes. Central composite design-response surface methodologies (CCD-RSM) were carried out to optimize the conditions for canthaxanthin yield. It was discovered D-glucose, Mg²⁺ and mannose have significant influence on canthaxanthin biosynthesis and growth of the mutant strain.

A rapid and sensitive assay for DNA-protein covalent complexes in living cells

A number of proteins form covalent bonds with DNA as obligatory transient intermediates in normal nuclear transactions. Drugs that trap these complexes have proven to be potent therapeutics in both cancer and infectious disease. Nonetheless, current assays for DNA–protein adducts are cumbersome, limiting both mechanistic studies and translational applications. We have developed a rapid and sensitive assay that enables quantitative immunodetection of protein–DNA adducts. This new ‘RADAR’ (rapid approach to DNA adduct recovery) assay accelerates processing time 4-fold, increases sample throughput 20-fold and requires 50-fold less starting material than the current standard. It can be used to detect topoisomerase 1-DNA adducts in as little as 60 ng of DNA, corresponding to 10 000 human cells. We apply the RADAR assay to demonstrate that expression of SLFN11 does not increase camptothecin sensitivity by promoting accumulation of topoisomerase 1-DNA adducts. The RADAR assay will be useful for analysis of the mechanisms of formation and resolution of DNA–protein adducts in living cells, and identification and characterization of reactions in which covalent DNA adducts are transient intermediates. The assay also has potential application to drug discovery and individualized medicine.

Translocation and stability of replicative DNA helicases upon encountering DNA-protein cross-links

DNA-protein cross-links (DPCs) are formed when cells are exposed to various DNA-damaging agents. Because DPCs are extremely large, steric hindrance conferred by DPCs is likely to affect many aspects of DNA transactions. In DNA replication, DPCs are first encountered by the replicative helicase that moves at the head of the replisome. However, little is known about how replicative helicases respond to covalently immobilized protein roadblocks. In the present study we elucidated the effect of DPCs on the DNA unwinding reaction of hexameric replicative helicases in vitro using defined DPC substrates. DPCs on the translocating strand but not on the nontranslocating strand impeded the progression of the helicases including the phage T7 gene 4 protein, simian virus 40 large T antigen, Escherichia coli DnaB protein, and human minichromosome maintenance Mcm467 subcomplex. The impediment varied with the size of the cross-linked proteins, with a threshold size for clearance of 5.0-14.1 kDa. These results indicate that the central channel of the dynamically translocating hexameric ring helicases can accommodate only small proteins and that all of the helicases tested use the steric exclusion mechanism to unwind duplex DNA. These results further suggest that DPCs on the translocating and nontranslocating strands constitute helicase and polymerase blocks, respectively. The helicases stalled by DPC had limited stability and dissociated from DNA with a half-life of 15-36 min. The implications of the results are discussed in relation to the distinct stabilities of replisomes that encounter tight but reversible DNA-protein complexes and irreversible DPC roadblocks.