A bioinformatics pipeline for estimating mitochondrial DNA copy number and heteroplasmy levels from whole genome sequencing data

Integrative genetic analysis: cornerstone of precision psychiatry

The role of genetic testing in the domain of neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders (NPDs) is gradually changing from providing etiological explanation for the presence of NPD phenotypes to also identifying young individuals at high risk of developing NPDs before their clinical manifestation. In clinical practice, the latter implies a shift towards the availability of individual genetic information predicting a certain liability to develop an NPD (e.g., autism, intellectual disability, psychosis etc.). The shift from mostly a posteriori explanation to increasingly a priori risk prediction is the by-product of the systematic implementation of whole exome or genome sequencing as part of routine diagnostic work-ups during the neonatal and prenatal periods. This rapid uptake of genetic testing early in development has far-reaching consequences for psychiatry: Whereas until recently individuals would come to medical attention because of signs of abnormal developmental and/or behavioral symptoms, increasingly, individuals are presented based on genetic liability for NPD outcomes before NPD symptoms emerge. This novel clinical scenario, while challenging, also creates opportunities for research on prevention interventions and precision medicine approaches. Here, we review why optimization of individual risk prediction is a key prerequisite for precision medicine in the sphere of NPDs, as well as the technological and statistical methods required to achieve this ambition.

A Homoplasmic MT-TV Mutation Associated with Mitochondrial Inheritance of Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia

BACKGROUND

Hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) is characterized by progressive lower limb weakness and spasticity, with unknown genetic cause in many cases.

OBJECTIVES

To identify novel genetic causes of HSP.

METHODS

Phenotypic characterization, genetic screening, transcriptome sequencing, and peroneal nerve biopsy were conducted in a Chinese HSP family.

RESULTS

We found a homoplasmic MT-TV (mitochondrial tRNAVal) mutation, m.1661A > G, present in all affected individuals across four generations of a family with complex HSP. Fourth-generation affected individuals displayed earlier onset, likely due to presumptive anticipation, and greater symptom severity, potentially caused by decreased mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) copy number. Upregulation of mitochondrial autophagy genes in these patients suggested that MT-TV mutations could lead to reduced mtDNA copy number. Neural biopsies revealed ultrastructural abnormalities in myelin and mitochondria.

CONCLUSIONS

The rare MT-TV m.1661A > G mutation is associated with HSP. Variations in mtDNA copy number may play a causal role in differences among clinical phenotypes. © 2024 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Epigenome-wide Association Analysis of Mitochondrial Heteroplasmy Provides Insight into Molecular Mechanisms of Disease

The relationship between mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) heteroplasmy and nuclear DNA (nDNA) methylation (CpGs) remains to be studied. We conducted an epigenome-wide association analysis of heteroplasmy burden scores across 10,986 participants (mean age 77, 63% women, and 54% non-White races/ethnicities) from seven population-based observational cohorts. We identified 412 CpGs (FDR p < 0.05) associated with mtDNA heteroplasmy. Higher levels of heteroplasmy burden were associated with lower nDNA methylation levels at most significant CpGs. Functional inference analyses of genes annotated to heteroplasmy-associated CpGs emphasized mitochondrial functions and showed enrichment in cardiometabolic conditions and traits. We developed CpG-scores based on heteroplasmy-count associated CpGs (MHC-CpG scores) using elastic net Cox regression in a training cohort. A one-unit higher level of the standardized MHC-CpG scores were associated with 1.26-fold higher hazard of all-cause mortality (95% CI: 1.14, 1.39) and 1.09-fold higher hazard of CVD (95% CI: 1.01-1.17) in the meta-analysis of testing cohorts, adjusting for age, sex, and smoking. These findings shed light on the relationship between mtDNA heteroplasmy and DNA methylation, and the role of heteroplasmy-associated CpGs as biomarkers in predicting all-cause mortality and cardiovascular disease.

Mitochondrial heteroplasmy improves risk prediction for myeloid neoplasms

Clonal hematopoiesis of indeterminate potential is the primary pathogenic risk factor for myeloid neoplasms, while heteroplasmy (mutations in a subset of cellular mitochondrial DNA) is another marker of clonal expansion associated with hematological malignancies. We explore how these two markers relate and influence myeloid neoplasms incidence, and their role in risk stratification. We find that heteroplasmy is more common in individuals with clonal hematopoiesis of indeterminate potential, particularly those with higher variant allele fractions, multiple mutations, or spliceosome machinery mutations. Individuals with both markers have a higher risk of myeloid neoplasms than those with either alone. Furthermore, heteroplasmic variants with higher predicted deleteriousness increase the risk of myeloid neoplasms. Incorporating heteroplasmy in an existing risk score model for individuals with clonal hematopoiesis of indeterminate potential significantly improves sensitivity and better identifies high-risk groups. This suggests heteroplasmy as a clonal expansion marker and potentially as a biomarker for myeloid neoplasms development.

Best practices for germline variant and DNA methylation analysis of second- and third-generation sequencing data

This comprehensive review provides insights and suggested strategies for the analysis of germline variants using second- and third-generation sequencing technologies (SGS and TGS). It addresses the critical stages of data processing, starting from alignment and preprocessing to quality control, variant calling, and the removal of artifacts. The document emphasized the importance of meticulous data handling, highlighting advanced methodologies for annotating variants and identifying structural variations and methylated DNA sites. Special attention is given to the inspection of problematic variants, a step that is crucial for ensuring the accuracy of the analysis, particularly in clinical settings where genetic diagnostics can inform patient care. Additionally, the document covers the use of various bioinformatics tools and software that enhance the precision and reliability of these analyses. It outlines best practices for the annotation of variants, including considerations for problematic genetic alterations such as those in the human leukocyte antigen region, runs of homozygosity, and mitochondrial DNA alterations. The document also explores the complexities associated with identifying structural variants and copy number variations, underscoring the challenges posed by these large-scale genomic alterations. The objective is to offer a comprehensive framework for researchers and clinicians, ensuring that genetic analyses conducted with SGS and TGS are both accurate and reproducible. By following these best practices, the document aims to increase the diagnostic accuracy for hereditary diseases, facilitating early diagnosis, prevention, and personalized treatment strategies. This review serves as a valuable resource for both novices and experts in the field, providing insights into the latest advancements and methodologies in genetic analysis. It also aims to encourage the adoption of these practices in diverse research and clinical contexts, promoting consistency and reliability across studies.

Quantifying constraint in the human mitochondrial genome

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) has an important yet often overlooked role in health and disease. Constraint models quantify the removal of deleterious variation from the population by selection and represent powerful tools for identifying genetic variation that underlies human phenotypes1-4. However, nuclear constraint models are not applicable to mtDNA, owing to its distinct features. Here we describe the development of a mitochondrial genome constraint model and its application to the Genome Aggregation Database (gnomAD), a large-scale population dataset that reports mtDNA variation across 56,434 human participants5. Specifically, we analyse constraint by comparing the observed variation in gnomAD to that expected under neutrality, which was calculated using a mtDNA mutational model and observed maximum heteroplasmy-level data. Our results highlight strong depletion of expected variation, which suggests that many deleterious mtDNA variants remain undetected. To aid their discovery, we compute constraint metrics for every mitochondrial protein, tRNA and rRNA gene, which revealed a range of intolerance to variation. We further characterize the most constrained regions within genes through regional constraint and identify the most constrained sites within the entire mitochondrial genome through local constraint, which showed enrichment of pathogenic variation. Constraint also clustered in three-dimensional structures, which provided insight into functionally important domains and their disease relevance. Notably, we identify constraint at often overlooked sites, including in rRNA and noncoding regions. Last, we demonstrate that these metrics can improve the discovery of deleterious variation that underlies rare and common phenotypes.

Variability of Mitochondrial DNA Heteroplasmy: Association with Asymptomatic Carotid Atherosclerosis

Background and Objectives: Atherosclerosis is one of the main reasons for cardiovascular disease development. This study aimed to analyze the association of mtDNA mutations and atherosclerotic plaques in carotid arteries of patients with atherosclerosis and conditionally healthy study participants from the Novosibirsk region. Methods: PCR fragments of DNA containing the regions of 10 investigated mtDNA mutations were pyrosequenced. The heteroplasmy levels of mtDNA mutations were analyzed using a quantitative method based on pyrosequencing technology developed by M. A. Sazonova and colleagues. Results: In the analysis of samples of patients with atherosclerotic plaques of the carotid arteries and conditionally healthy study participants from the Novosibirsk region, four proatherogenic mutations in the mitochondrial genome (m.5178C>A, m.652delG, m.12315G>A and m.3256C>T) and three antiatherogenic mutations in mtDNA (m.13513G>A, m.652insG, and m.14846G>A) were detected. A west-east gradient was found in the distribution of the mtDNA mutations m.5178C>A, m.3256C>T, m.652insG, and m.13513G>A. Conclusions: Therefore, four proatherogenic mutations in the mitochondrial genome (m.5178C>A, m.652delG, m.12315G>A, and m.3256C>T) and three antiatherogenic mutations in mtDNA (m.13513G>A, m.652insG, and m.14846G>A) were detected in patients with atherosclerotic plaques in their carotid arteries from the Novosibirsk region.

The genomic mosaic of mitochondrial dysfunction: Decoding nuclear and mitochondrial epigenetic contributions to maternally inherited diabetes and deafness pathogenesis

Aims

Maternally inherited diabetes and deafness (MIDD) is a complex disorder characterized by multiorgan clinical manifestations, including diabetes, hearing loss, and ophthalmic complications. This pilot study aimed to elucidate the intricate interplay between nuclear and mitochondrial genetics, epigenetic modifications, and their potential implications in the pathogenesis of MIDD.

Main methods

A comprehensive genomic approach was employed to analyze a Sicilian family affected by clinically characterized MIDD, negative to the only known causative m.3243 A > G variant, integrating whole-exome sequencing and whole-genome bisulfite sequencing of both nuclear and mitochondrial analyses.

Key findings

Rare and deleterious variants were identified across multiple nuclear genes involved in retinal homeostasis, mitochondrial function, and epigenetic regulation, while complementary mitochondrial DNA analysis revealed a rich tapestry of genetic diversity across genes encoding components of the electron transport chain and ATP synthesis machinery. Epigenetic analyses uncovered significant differentially methylated regions across the genome and within the mitochondrial genome, suggesting a nuanced landscape of epigenetic modulation.

Significance

The integration of genetic and epigenetic data highlighted the potential crosstalk between nuclear and mitochondrial regulation, with specific mtDNA variants influencing methylation patterns and potentially impacting the expression and regulation of mitochondrial genes. This pilot study provides valuable insights into the complex molecular mechanisms underlying MIDD, emphasizing the interplay between nucleus and mitochondrion, tracing the way for future research into targeted therapeutic interventions and personalized approaches for disease management.

mtDNA-Server 2: advancing mitochondrial DNA analysis through highly parallelized data processing and interactive analytics

Over the past decade, mtDNA-Server established itself as one of the most widely used variant calling web-services for human mitochondrial genomes. The service accepts sequencing data in BAM format and returns an annotated variant analysis report for both homoplasmic and heteroplasmic variants. In this work we present mtDNA-Server 2, which includes several new features highly requested by the community. Most importantly, it includes (a) the integration of a novel variant calling mode that accurately call insertions, deletions and single nucleotide variants at once, (b) the integration of additional quality control and input validation modules, (c) a method to estimate the required coverage to minimize false positives and (d) an interactive analytics dashboard. Furthermore, we migrated the complete analysis workflow to the Nextflow workflow manager for improved parallelization, reproducibility and local execution. Recognizing the importance of insertions and deletions as well as offering novel quality control, validation and reporting features, mtDNA-Server 2 provides researchers and clinicians a new state-of-the-art analysis platform for interpreting mitochondrial genomes. mtDNA-Server 2 is available via mitoverse, our analysis platform that offers a centralized place for mtDNA analysis in the cloud. The web-service, source code and its documentation are freely accessible at https://mitoverse.i-med.ac.at.

mtDNA analysis using Mitopore

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis is crucial for the diagnosis of mitochondrial disorders, forensic investigations, and basic research. Existing pipelines are complex, expensive, and require specialized personnel. In many cases, including the diagnosis of detrimental single nucleotide variants (SNVs), mtDNA analysis is still carried out using Sanger sequencing. Here, we developed a simple workflow and a publicly available webserver named Mitopore that allows the detection of mtDNA SNVs, indels, and haplogroups. To simplify mtDNA analysis, we tailored our workflow to process noisy long-read sequencing data for mtDNA analysis, focusing on sequence alignment and parameter optimization. We implemented Mitopore with eliBQ (eliminate bad quality reads), an innovative quality enhancement that permits the increase of per-base quality of over 20% for low-quality data. The whole Mitopore workflow and webserver were validated using patient-derived and induced pluripotent stem cells harboring mtDNA mutations. Mitopore streamlines mtDNA analysis as an easy-to-use fast, reliable, and cost-effective analysis method for both long- and short-read sequencing data. This significantly enhances the accessibility of mtDNA analysis and reduces the cost per sample, contributing to the progress of mtDNA-related research and diagnosis.

MitoH3: Mitochondrial Haplogroup and Homoplasmic/Heteroplasmic Variant Calling Pipeline for Alzheimer's Disease Sequencing Project

Background

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is a double-stranded circular DNA and has multiple copies in each cell. Excess heteroplasmy, the coexistence of distinct variants in copies of mtDNA within a cell, may lead to mitochondrial impairments. Accurate determination of heteroplasmy in whole-genome sequencing (WGS) data has posed a significant challenge because mitochondria carrying heteroplasmic variants cannot be distinguished during library preparation. Moreover, sequencing errors, contamination, and nuclear mtDNA segments can reduce the accuracy of heteroplasmic variant calling.

Objective

To efficiently and accurately call mtDNA homoplasmic and heteroplasmic variants from the large-scale WGS data generated from the Alzheimer's Disease Sequencing Project (ADSP), and test their association with Alzheimer's disease (AD).

Methods

In this study, we present MitoH3-a comprehensive computational pipeline for calling mtDNA homoplasmic and heteroplasmic variants and inferring haplogroups in the ADSP WGS data. We first applied MitoH3 to 45 technical replicates from 6 subjects to define a threshold for detecting heteroplasmic variants. Then using the threshold of 5% ≤variant allele fraction≤95%, we further applied MitoH3 to call heteroplasmic variants from a total of 16,113 DNA samples with 6,742 samples from cognitively normal controls and 6,183 from AD cases.

Results

This pipeline is available through the Singularity container engine. For 4,311 heteroplasmic variants identified from 16,113 samples, no significant variant count difference was observed between AD cases and controls.

Conclusions

Our streamlined pipeline, MitoH3, enables computationally efficient and accurate analysis of a large number of samples.

Longitudinal change in mitochondrial heteroplasmy exhibits positive selection for deleterious variants

A common feature of human aging is the acquisition of somatic mutations, and mitochondria are particularly prone to mutation due to their inefficient DNA repair and close proximity to reactive oxygen species, leading to a state of mitochondrial DNA heteroplasmy1,2. Cross-sectional studies have demonstrated that detection of heteroplasmy increases with participant age3, a phenomenon that has been attributed to genetic drift4-7. In this first large-scale longitudinal study, we measured heteroplasmy in two prospective cohorts (combined n=1405) at two timepoints (mean time between visits, 8.6 years), demonstrating that deleterious heteroplasmies were more likely to increase in variant allele fraction (VAF). We further demonstrated that increase in VAF was associated with increased risk of overall mortality. These results challenge the claim that somatic mtDNA mutations arise mainly due to genetic drift, instead demonstrating positive selection for predicted deleterious mutations at the cellular level, despite an negative impact on overall mortality.

Mitochondrial and Nuclear DNA Variants in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: Enrichment in the Mitochondrial Control Region and Sirtuin Pathway Genes in Spinal Cord Tissue

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive disease with prevalent mitochondrial dysfunctions affecting both upper and lower motor neurons in the motor cortex, brainstem, and spinal cord. Despite mitochondria having their own genome (mtDNA), in humans, most mitochondrial genes are encoded by the nuclear genome (nDNA). Our study aimed to simultaneously screen for nDNA and mtDNA genomes to assess for specific variant enrichment in ALS compared to control tissues. Here, we analysed whole exome (WES) and whole genome (WGS) sequencing data from spinal cord tissues, respectively, of 6 and 12 human donors. A total of 31,257 and 301,241 variants in nuclear-encoded mitochondrial genes were identified from WES and WGS, respectively, while mtDNA reads accounted for 73 and 332 variants. Despite technical differences, both datasets consistently revealed a specific enrichment of variants in the mitochondrial Control Region (CR) and in several of these genes directly associated with mitochondrial dynamics or with Sirtuin pathway genes within ALS tissues. Overall, our data support the hypothesis of a variant burden in specific genes, highlighting potential actionable targets for therapeutic interventions in ALS.

Penetrance and expressivity of mitochondrial variants in a large clinically unselected population

Whole genome sequencing (WGS) from large clinically unselected cohorts provides a unique opportunity to assess the penetrance and expressivity of rare and/or known pathogenic mitochondrial variants in population. Using WGS from 179 862 clinically unselected individuals from the UK Biobank, we performed extensive single and rare variant aggregation association analyses of 15 881 mtDNA variants and 73 known pathogenic variants with 15 mitochondrial disease-relevant phenotypes. We identified 12 homoplasmic and one heteroplasmic variant (m.3243A>G) with genome-wide significant associations in our clinically unselected cohort. Heteroplasmic m.3243A>G (MAF = 0.0002, a known pathogenic variant) was associated with diabetes, deafness and heart failure and 12 homoplasmic variants increased aspartate aminotransferase levels including three low-frequency variants (MAF ~0.002 and beta~0.3 SD). Most pathogenic mitochondrial disease variants (n = 66/74) were rare in the population (<1:9000). Aggregated or single variant analysis of pathogenic variants showed low penetrance in unselected settings for the relevant phenotypes, except m.3243A>G. Multi-system disease risk and penetrance of diabetes, deafness and heart failure greatly increased with m.3243A>G level ≥ 10%. The odds ratio of these traits increased from 5.61, 12.3 and 10.1 to 25.1, 55.0 and 39.5, respectively. Diabetes risk with m.3243A>G was further influenced by type 2 diabetes genetic risk. Our study of mitochondrial variation in a large-unselected population identified novel associations and demonstrated that pathogenic mitochondrial variants have lower penetrance in clinically unselected settings. m.3243A>G was an exception at higher heteroplasmy showing a significant impact on health making it a good candidate for incidental reporting.

Deleterious heteroplasmic mitochondrial mutations are associated with an increased risk of overall and cancer-specific mortality

Mitochondria carry their own circular genome and disruption of the mitochondrial genome is associated with various aging-related diseases. Unlike the nuclear genome, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) can be present at 1000 s to 10,000 s copies in somatic cells and variants may exist in a state of heteroplasmy, where only a fraction of the DNA molecules harbors a particular variant. We quantify mtDNA heteroplasmy in 194,871 participants in the UK Biobank and find that heteroplasmy is associated with a 1.5-fold increased risk of all-cause mortality. Additionally, we functionally characterize mtDNA single nucleotide variants (SNVs) using a constraint-based score, mitochondrial local constraint score sum (MSS) and find it associated with all-cause mortality, and with the prevalence and incidence of cancer and cancer-related mortality, particularly leukemia. These results indicate that mitochondria may have a functional role in certain cancers, and mitochondrial heteroplasmic SNVs may serve as a prognostic marker for cancer, especially for leukemia.

Mitochondrial DNA control region typing from highly degraded skeletal remains by single-multiplex next-generation sequencing

Poor nuclear DNA preservation from highly degraded skeletal remains is the most limiting factor for the genetic identification of individuals. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) typing, and especially of the control region (CR), using next-generation sequencing (NGS), enables retrieval of valuable genetic information in forensic contexts where highly degraded human skeletal remains are the only source of genetic material. Currently, NGS commercial kits can type all mtDNA-CR in fewer steps than the conventional Sanger technique. The PowerSeq CRM Nested System kit (Promega Corporation) employs a nested multiplex-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) strategy to amplify and index all mtDNA-CR in a single reaction. Our study analyzes the success of mtDNA-CR typing of highly degraded human skeletons using the PowerSeq CRM Nested System kit. We used samples from 41 individuals from different time periods to test three protocols (M1, M2, and M3) based on modifications of PCR conditions. To analyze the detected variants, two bioinformatic procedures were compared: an in-house pipeline and the GeneMarker HTS software. The results showed that many samples were not analyzed when the standard protocol (M1) was used. In contrast, the M3 protocol, which includes 35 PCR cycles and longer denaturation and extension steps, successfully recovered the mtDNA-CR from highly degraded skeletal samples. Mixed base profiles and the percentage of damaged reads were both indicators of possible contamination and can provide better results if used together. Furthermore, our freely available in-house pipeline can provide variants concordant with the forensic software.

A Multibreed Genome-Wide Association Study for Cattle Leukocyte Telomere Length

Telomeres are terminal DNA regions of chromosomes that prevent chromosomal fusion and degradation during cell division. In cattle, leukocyte telomere length (LTL) is associated with longevity, productive lifespan, and disease susceptibility. However, the genetic basis of LTL in this species is less studied than in humans. In this study, we utilized the whole-genome resequencing data of 239 animals from 17 cattle breeds for computational leukocyte telomere length estimation and subsequent genome-wide association study of LTL. As a result, we identified 42 significant SNPs, of which eight were found in seven genes (EXOC6B, PTPRD, RPS6KC1, NSL1, AGBL1, ENSBTAG00000052188, and GPC1) when using covariates for two major breed groups (Turano-Mongolian and European). Association analysis with covariates for breed effect detected 63 SNPs, including 13 in five genes (EXOC6B, PTPRD, RPS6KC1, ENSBTAG00000040318, and NELL1). The PTPRD gene, demonstrating the top signal in analysis with breed effect, was previously associated with leukocyte telomere length in cattle and likely is involved in the mechanism of alternative lengthening of telomeres. The single nucleotide variants found could be tested for marker-assisted selection to improve telomere-length-associated traits.

Enhanced mitochondrial genome analysis: bioinformatic and long-read sequencing advances and their diagnostic implications

INTRODUCTION

Primary mitochondrial diseases (PMDs) comprise a large and heterogeneous group of genetic diseases that result from pathogenic variants in either nuclear DNA (nDNA) or mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Widespread adoption of next-generation sequencing (NGS) has improved the efficiency and accuracy of mtDNA diagnoses; however, several challenges remain.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we briefly summarize the current state of the art in molecular diagnostics for mtDNA and consider the implications of improved whole genome sequencing (WGS), bioinformatic techniques, and the adoption of long-read sequencing, for PMD diagnostics.

EXPERT OPINION

We anticipate that the application of PCR-free WGS from blood DNA will increase in diagnostic laboratories, while for adults with myopathic presentations, WGS from muscle DNA may become more widespread. Improved bioinformatic strategies will enhance WGS data interrogation, with more accurate delineation of mtDNA and NUMTs (nuclear mitochondrial DNA segments) in WGS data, superior coverage uniformity, indirect measurement of mtDNA copy number, and more accurate interpretation of heteroplasmic large-scale rearrangements (LSRs). Separately, the adoption of diagnostic long-read sequencing could offer greater resolution of complex LSRs and the opportunity to phase heteroplasmic variants.

The Mighty NUMT: Mitochondrial DNA Flexing Its Code in the Nuclear Genome

Nuclear-mitochondrial DNA segments (NUMTs) are mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) fragments that have been inserted into the nuclear genome. Some NUMTs are common within the human population but most NUMTs are rare and specific to individuals. NUMTs range in size from 24 base pairs to encompassing nearly the entire mtDNA and are found throughout the nuclear genome. Emerging evidence suggests that the formation of NUMTs is an ongoing process in humans. NUMTs contaminate sequencing results of the mtDNA by introducing false positive variants, particularly heteroplasmic variants present at a low variant allele frequency (VAF). In our review, we discuss the prevalence of NUMTs in the human population, the potential mechanisms of de novo NUMT insertion via DNA repair mechanisms, and provide an overview of the existing approaches for minimizing NUMT contamination. Apart from filtering known NUMTs, both wet lab-based and computational methods can be used to minimize the contamination of NUMTs in analyses of human mtDNA. Current approaches include: (1) isolating mitochondria to enrich for mtDNA; (2) applying basic local alignment to identify NUMTs for subsequent filtering; (3) bioinformatic pipelines for NUMT detection; (4) k-mer-based NUMT detection; and (5) filtering candidate false positive variants by mtDNA copy number, VAF, or sequence quality score. Multiple approaches must be applied in order to effectively identify NUMTs in samples. Although next-generation sequencing is revolutionizing our understanding of heteroplasmic mtDNA, it also raises new challenges with the high prevalence and individual-specific NUMTs that need to be handled with care in studies of mitochondrial genetics.

Extensive mitogenomic heteroplasmy and its implications in the phylogeny of the fish genus Megalobrama

Megalobrama is China's most economically valuable fish genera. Four species make up this genus: M. amblycephala (MA), M. terminalis (MT), M. pellegrini (MP), and M. hoffmanni (MH). Many researchers have investigated the genetic relationship of Megalobrama based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and discovered that the branches of the phylogenetic tree for MT and MP are intertwined. We hypothesized that this occurs because mitogenomic heteroplasmy is overlooked when working with mtDNA, which causes MP and MT positions to intersect in phylogenetic trees. To eliminate the influence of nuclear mitochondrial DNA fragments (NUMTs) before analyzing mitogenomic heteroplasmy, we used PLastZ to identify NUMTs, which were then removed from the samples for the subsequent heteroplasmy analysis. Using the heteroplasmy caller icHET, we discovered 126, 339, 135, and 203 heteroplasmic variants in six MA, MT, MP, and MH samples. We reconstructed the Megalobrama fish genus's phylogenetic tree using the RY coding method and rejecting the third position on codons, which improved the performance of the phylogenetic tree by increasing the ratio of treeness to relative component variability from 100.02 ± 1.76 to 688.59 ± 190.56. Despite this, the RY coding method cannot alter the intersection of MP and MT positions in phylogenetic trees. We hypothesize that gene flow between MT and MP leads to intertwining mtDNA-based phylogenetic trees. In conclusion, our findings on the mitogenomic heteroplasmy of Megalobrama provide new insights into mtDNA-based phylogenetic studies.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-023-03523-0.