Potential misinterpretation of the nutritional value of dietary fiber: correcting fiber digestibility values for nondietary gut-interfering material

Determination of energy values in pistachio shell powder and soybean hulls fed to gestating and lactating sows

Pistachio shell powder is a high-fiber co-product from the pistachio nut industry that may provide energy and nutrients in animal diets, but no data have been reported for the nutritional value of pistachio shell powder when fed to pigs. Two experiments were, therefore, conducted to test the hypothesis that apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of gross energy (GE), dry matter (DM), and total dietary fiber (TDF) and concentration of digestible energy (DE) in pistachio shell powder are not different from those in soybean hulls when fed to gestating or lactating sows. In experiment 1, 24 gestating sows were housed in metabolism crates and fed a corn-based basal diet or 2 diets that contained corn and 20% pistachio shell powder or corn and 20% soybean hulls. Sows were fed experimental diets for 13 d with feces and urine being quantitatively collected for 4 d after 6 d of adaptation. In experiment 2, 24 lactating sows were housed in farrowing crates and fed a diet based on corn and soybean meal (SBM) or 2 diets that contained corn, SBM, and 20% of either pistachio shell powder or soybean hulls, and feces were collected for 6 d after 7 d of adaptation to the diets. Results indicated that for gestating sows, the diet containing soybean hulls had greater (P < 0.05) ATTD of DM, GE, and TDF than the diet containing pistachio shell powder. The DE and metabolizable energy (ME) in the pistachio shell powder diet were less (P < 0.05) than in the basal diet and the diet containing soybean hulls. The ME in pistachio shells (2,606 kcal/kg DM) was less (P < 0.05) than in soybean hulls (3,645 kcal/kg DM). When fed to lactating sows, ATTD of DM, GE, and TDF in the diet containing pistachio shell powder was less (P < 0.05) than in the diet containing soybean hulls or in the basal diet. The DE in the diet containing pistachio shell powder was also less (P < 0.05) than in the soybean hulls diet. The DE in pistachio shell powder (1,664 kcal/kg DM) was less (P < 0.05) than in soybean hulls (2,795 kcal/kg DM). In conclusion, the ATTD of DM and GE and the DE in pistachio shell powder were less than in soybean hulls, and inclusion in lactation diets, therefore, needs to be limited.

Exogenous enzymes, meal size, and meal frequency: effect on ileal and total tract digestibility of carbohydrates, and energy and fiber degradation in growing pigs fed a wheat-barley grain-based high-fiber diet

When conducting a digestibility trial, pigs are usually fed only twice a day with a restricted feed intake which is not representative of the feeding conditions in a commercial farm. This study aimed to determine the effects of meal size and frequency, and exogenous enzymes (xylanase and phytase) on the digestibility of a high-fiber diet using porcine in vivo and in vitro approaches. Pigs (n = 6) were fitted with a T cannula, and each received all treatments using a 6 × 6 Latin square experimental design. The diets were supplemented (Enz) or not with a combination of xylanase and phytase and distributed into three feeding programs: one received two meals per day that met three times the maintenance energy requirement (2M), one received the same quantity of feed in eight meals (8M), and another received an amount that met five times the maintenance energy requirements in eight meals (8M+). For in vitro experiment, the degradability of fiber with or without xylanase supplementation only was determined. Enzyme supplementation increased apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of dry matter, starch, and degradation of insoluble non-starch polysaccharides (I-NSP) in all in vivo treatments (P < 0.05). The 2M compared with 8M increased the AID of starch and total tract digestibility of organic matter and I-NSP (P < 0.05). Enzyme supplementation decreased the content of insoluble arabinoxylan (P < 0.05) and increased arabinoxylan oligosaccharides (P < 0.05) in the in vivo ileal digesta and in vitro incubation. The results of this study confirm degradation by xylanase of the fiber fraction at the ileal level, which resulted in less fermentation of fiber in the large intestine. However, number and size of meals had little influence on feed digestibility. The consequences of shifting fiber fermentation more towards the upper part of the gastrointestinal tract need further investigation. The in vitro model provided a confirmation of the action of xylanase on the degradation of non-starch polysaccharides.

Decreased nutrient digestibility due to viscosity is independent of the amount of dietary fibre fed to growing pigs

Fibre content and its effect on chyme viscosity are associated with changes in the digestive system of humans and pigs. It is unclear if fibre content and viscosity affect digestive function independently or interactively. We evaluated apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of nutrients and intestinal function in thirty-six ileal-cannulated barrows fed for 29 d either maize-soyabean meal (MSBM) or high-fibre MSBM + 30 % distillers dried grains with solubles (MSBM + DDGS) modified to three levels of viscosity by adding 5 % non-viscous cellulose (CEL), 6·5 % medium-viscous carboxymethylcellulose (MCMC) or 6·5 % high-viscous CMC (HCMC). Digesta were collected on days 27 and 28 and intestinal samples on day 29. Feeding CMC, regardless of fibre content, increased viscosity of whole digesta (P = 0·003) and digesta supernatant (P < 0·0001) compared with CEL. Feeding MSBM + DDGS or CMC decreased AID of DM (P = 0·003; P < 0·0001) and crude protein (P = 0·02; P < 0·0001) compared with MSBM or CEL. Feeding CMC regardless of fibre content increased jejunal crypt depth (P = 0·02) and ileal goblet cell area (P = 0·004) compared with CEL. Adding DDGS or CMC did not affect villus height and gene expression of jejunal monosaccharide and amino acid transporters. Feeding HCMC, regardless of fibre content, elevated amylase activity by 46 and 50 % in jejunal (P = 0·03) and ileal digesta (P = 0·01) compared with CEL. In summary, diets with increased viscosity decreased nutrient digestibility and induced intestinal changes that were independent of the amount of fibre fed.

Effects of water quality on growth performance and health of nursery pigs

An experiment was conducted to determine the effects of providing drinking water of differing qualities on growth performance and health of nursery pigs. Weanling pigs (n = 450; 150 pigs/group; 10 pigs/pen) were assigned randomly to one of three experimental groups consisting of three water sources of varying qualities: 1) Water source A containing 1,410 ppm hardness (CaCO₃ equivalent), 1,120 ppm sulfates, and 1,500 ppm total dissolved solids (TDS); 2) Water source B containing 909 ppm hardness (CaCO₃ equivalent), 617 ppm sulfates, and 1,050 ppm TDS; and 3) Water source C containing 235 ppm hardness (CaCO₃ equivalent), 2 ppm sulfates, and 348 ppm TDS. Pigs were provided ad libitum access to their respective water sources for the duration of the study which began at weaning (21 d of age) and ended 40 d later (61 d of age). Individual pig weights were recorded weekly along with feed intake on a pen basis. Occurrences of morbidity and mortality were recorded daily. Subjective fecal scores were assigned on a pen basis and blood samples were used to evaluate blood chemistry, cytokine concentrations, and phagocytic activity. A differential sugar absorption test was used to assess intestinal permeability. Fecal grab samples were used to establish diet digestibility, and drinking behavior was video-recorded to assess pigs’ acceptance of water sources provided. The statistical model considered fixed effects of water source, room, and their interaction with the random effect of pen. A repeated measures analysis was conducted to determine the effects of water quality over time. There were no differences (P > 0.440) among water sources in average daily gain (A, 0.46 kg/d; B, 0.46 kg/d; C, 0.47 kg/d) or average daily feed intake (A, 0.68 kg/d; B, 0.69 kg/d; C, 0.71 kg/d). Overall mortality of pigs was 0.44% and did not differ across the three water sources. There were no differences in apparent total tract digestibility of the diet, intestinal permeability, immune parameters, or blood chemistry attributable to quality of water consumed by pigs. Pigs did not show an aversion to the water sources provided, because total time pigs spent at the drinker did not differ (P > 0.750) among water sources on days 1 through 3 of the experiment. These data indicate that the water sources of differing quality studied did not affect growth performance or health of nursery pigs.

Effects of Dietary Cereal and Protein Source on Fiber Digestibility, Composition, and Metabolic Activity of the Intestinal Microbiota in Weaner Piglets

Simple Summary

Rye and rapeseed meal can be alternative feed components for weaner piglets instead of wheat and soybean meal. Both components can help to meet current challenges in pig nutrition, such as increasingly dry weather conditions and the high amount of imported soybean. Since they contain more and differently composed fiber, effects on digestive physiology and intestinal microbiota might help to maintain gut health and prevent post-weaning diarrhea. This study shows that despite a similar composition of the large intestinal microbiota, the higher amount and solubility of complex carbohydrates from rye lead to a higher fermentative activity compared to wheat, which is considered a beneficial effect. The high amount of insoluble dietary fiber in rapeseed-based diets lowered bacterial metabolic activity and caused a shift toward insoluble fiber degrading bacteria.

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the effect of fiber-rich rye and rapeseed meal (RSM) compared to wheat and soybean meal (SBM) on fiber digestibility and the composition and metabolic activity of intestinal microbiota. At weaning, 88 piglets were allocated to four feeding groups: wheat/SBM, wheat/RSM, rye/SBM, and rye/RSM. Dietary inclusion level was 48% for rye and wheat, 25% for SBM, and 30% for RSM. Piglets were euthanized after 33 days for collection of digesta and feces. Samples were analyzed for dry matter and non-starch-polysaccharide (NSP) digestibility, bacterial metabolites, and relative abundance of microbiota. Rye-based diets had higher concentrations of soluble NSP than wheat-based diets. RSM-diets were higher in insoluble NSP compared to SBM. Rye-fed piglets showed a higher colonic and fecal digestibility of NSP (p < 0.001, p = 0.001, respectively). RSM-fed piglets showed a lower colonic and fecal digestibility of NSP than SBM-fed piglets (p < 0.001). Rye increased jejunal and colonic concentration of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) compared to wheat (p < 0.001, p = 0.016, respectively). RSM-fed pigs showed a lower jejunal concentration of SCFA (p = 0.001) than SBM-fed pigs. Relative abundance of Firmicutes was higher (p = 0.039) and of Proteobacteria lower (p = 0.002) in rye-fed pigs compared to wheat. RSM reduced Firmicutes and increased Actinobacteria (jejunum, colon, feces: p < 0.050), jejunal Proteobacteria (p = 0.019) and colonic Bacteroidetes (p = 0.014). Despite a similar composition of the colonic microbiota, the higher amount and solubility of NSP from rye resulted in an increased fermentative activity compared to wheat. The high amount of insoluble dietary fiber in RSM-based diets reduced bacterial metabolic activity and caused a shift toward insoluble fiber degrading bacteria. Further research should focus on host–microbiota interaction to improve feeding concepts with a targeted use of dietary fiber.

Impact of diet type and xylanase supplementation on the ileal digestibility of nutrients, and growth performance in growing-finishing pigs

In the experiment, six pigs fitted with a T-cannula at the distal ileum were fed six diets in a 6 × 6 Latin square design. Treatments were corn-soybean meal diet (CS), diet containing wheat by-products (WBP), and diet containing corn distillers dried grains with solubles and canola meal (DDCM) without or with xylanase (X) supplementation (CS-X, WBP-X, and DDCM-X). The WBP and DDCM diets had higher apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of lipids and acid detergent fiber (ADF) (P < 0.05) than CS diets. A xylanase × diet interaction was observed for the AID of neutral detergent fiber (NDF) (P < 0.05) showing larger impact of xylanase in WBP than in the other diets. Using similar dietary treatments except for CS-X, growth and body composition of the sixty males (83.0 kg) at the end of the 28-day growing phase showed that pig fed the CS diet had greater average daily feed intake (ADFI) (P = 0.004) and average daily gain (ADG) (P = 0.014) for period 0–14 d but not from 15–28 d. Overall performance (0–28 d) showed higher ADFI (9.5%; P = 0.015) in CS but no difference was observed for ADG and gain to feed ratio (G:F). These results showed that diets containing a high proportion of by-products can give equivalent performance to a CS diet and that adding xylanase for this short period had limited effects.

Fiber digestibility in growing pigs fed common fiber-rich ingredients: a systematic review

The application of high-fiber ingredients in the swine feed industry has some limitations considering that high amounts of fiber are resistant to endogenous enzymatic degradation in the pig’s gut. However, there is growing interest in fiber fermentation in the intestine of pigs due to their functional properties and potential health benefits. Many strategies have been applied in feed formulations to improve utilization efficiency of fiber-rich ingredients and stimulate their prebiotic effects in pigs. This manuscript reviews chemical compositions, physical properties, and digestibility of fiber-rich diets formulated with fibrous ingredients for growing pigs. Evidences presented in this review indicate there is a great variation in chemical compositions and physical properties of fibrous ingredients, resulting in the discrepancy of energy and fiber digestibility in pig intestine. In practice, fermentation capacity of fiber components in the pig’s intestine can be improved using strategies, such as biological enzymes supplementation and feed processing technologies. Soluble dietary fiber (SDF) and insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), rather than neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF), are recommended in application of pig production to achieve precise feeding. Limitations of current scientific research on determining fiber digestibility and short chain fatty acids (SCFA) production are discussed. Endogenous losses of fiber components from non-dietary materials that result in underestimation of fiber digestibility and SCFA production are discussed in this review. Overall, the purpose of our review is to provide a reference for feeding the pig by choosing the diets formulated with different high-fiber ingredients.

Toward Precise Nutrient Value of Feed in Growing Pigs: Effect of Meal Size, Frequency and Dietary Fibre on Nutrient Utilisation

Simple Summary

Feed costs are the most important in swine production. Precise determination of nutritional values of pig diets can help reducing feed costs by reducing security margins for nutrients and therefore provide a more sustainable swine production. In commercial farms, pigs have free access to feed and eat with no limitation according to their natural behaviour. In contrast, during digestibility trials, pigs are restricted in their daily intake of feed, which is distributed in a limited number of meals. The number of meals per day and the amount of feed consumed daily can affect the digestibility of the nutrients, the transit time and the metabolism. To reduce feed costs, by-products are frequently added to diets. Most by-products are rich in dietary fibre, which are known to have negative effects on digestibility. Enzymes can be supplemented in the diet to counteract the negative aspects of dietary fibre, but their efficiency can vary depending on the number of meals per day and the amount of feed consumed daily.

Abstract

Nutritional values of ingredients have been and still are the subject of many studies to reduce security margins of nutrients when formulating diets to reduce feed cost. In most studies, pigs are fed a limited amount of feed in a limited number of meals that do not represent how pigs are fed in commercial farm conditions. With free access to feed, pigs follow their intrinsic feeding behaviour. Feed intake is regulated by satiety and satiation signals. Reducing the feed intake level or feeding frequency can affect digestibility and transit time and induce metabolic changes. To reduce feed costs, alternative ingredients that are frequently rich in dietary fibre are added to diets. Fibre acts on the digestion process and transit time by decreasing energy density and causing viscosity. Various analyses of fibre can be realised, and the measured fibre fraction can vary. Exogenous enzymes can be added to counteract the effect of fibre, but digestive tract conditions, influenced by meal size and frequency, can affect the efficiency of supplemented enzymes. In conclusion, the frequency and size of the meals can affect the digestibility of nutrients by modulating gastrointestinal tract conditions (pH and transit time), metabolites (glucose and short-chain fatty acids) and hormones (glucagon-like peptide 1 and peptide tyrosine tyrosine).

Variations on gut health and energy metabolism in pigs and humans by intake of different dietary fibers

Many studies have reported that dietary fibers play a crucial role in promoting intestinal health of the host, since it strengthens functions of epithelial barrier and meanwhile maintains intestinal homeostasis of the host by modulating gut microbiota and short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production. Pig is a good animal model to study effects of dietary fiber on gut health and microbial community. This review has summarized the relevant knowledge available based on roles of various dietary fibers in gut health and energy metabolism of pigs and humans. Evidences summarized in our review indicated that modulating intestinal microbial composition and SCFA production by consuming specific dietary fibers properly could be conducive to health improvement and disease prevention of the host. However, types of dietary fiber from edible foods exert divergent impacts on gut health, energy metabolism, microbial composition, and SCFA production. Therefore, more attention should be focused on different responses of various dietary fibers intake on host metabolism and health.

Effect of almond hulls on the performance, egg quality, nutrient digestibility, and body composition of laying hens

The objective of this study was to evaluate 2 varieties of almond hulls (prime and California type hulls) as an alternative feed ingredient on the performance, egg quality, nutrient digestibility, and body composition using a total of 100 23-week-old Hy-Line W36 hens. Treatments consisted of a control diet based on corn and soybean meal; T2 and T3 were formulated to contain 7.5 and 15% of prime hulls; and T4 and T5 contained 7.5 and 15% of California type hulls. Inclusion of prime hulls and California type hulls had no effects on feed intake, egg laying rate, and feed conversion ratio, but California type hulls at 7.5% decreased (P < 0.001) body weight gain compared to the control. Prime hulls at 7.5% and California type hulls at both levels improved (P ≤ 0.022) AMEn and N digestibility. Both prime hulls and California type hulls had no effects on egg size, specific gravity, Haugh unit, and percentages of yolk, albumen and shell, but yolk color appeared greener and less yellow (P ≤ 0.009) by prime hulls and less yellow (P = 0.001) by California type hulls. For body composition, prime hulls and California type hulls at both levels lowered (P ≤ 0.017) body fat, and California type hulls at 7.5% decreased (P = 0.001) lean weight. In summary, inclusion of prime hulls and California type hulls up to 15% had no negative effect on egg production and egg quality while reduced the body fat percentage and mass.

Effects of canola meal inclusion rate in starter mixtures for Holstein heifer calves on dry matter intake, average daily gain, ruminal fermentation, plasma metabolites, and total-tract digestibility

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of the canola meal (CM) inclusion rate in pelleted starter mixtures for Holstein heifer calves on dry matter intake, average daily gain, ruminal fermentation, plasma metabolites, and total-tract digestibility. Fifty Holstein heifer calves were blocked by birth date and body weight and, within block, randomly assigned to 1 of 5 pelleted starter treatments with 0, 15, 30, 45, or 60% of the crude protein supplied by CM instead of soybean meal (SBM). Pellets were formulated to be similar in crude protein (24.3%), starch (26.6%), and neutral detergent fiber (17.8%) and were provided to calves starting on d 8 of age, with starter intake measured daily. From 8.0 ± 0.0 (mean ± standard deviation) d of age through d 35.3 ± 2.4, calves were fed milk replacer at 15% of body weight, offered in 3 equal feedings at 0600, 1500, and 2100 h. After that, a gradual 21-d step-down weaning process was imposed, where no further milk replacer was provided starting on d 57.0 ± 0.0. Data for milk replacer and starter intake were calculated to determine weekly averages. On d 62.2 ± 0.8 of age, blood was collected every 4 h and analyzed for glucose, β-hydroxybutyrate, insulin, and urea concentrations. From d 66.2 ± 0.8 of age and extending for 3 d, fecal samples were collected every 12 h with a 3-h daily offset, to estimate fecal nutrient output and to determine apparent total-tract digestibility. Additionally, ruminal fluid (d 70.2 ± 0.8 of age) was sampled at 1300 h through an esophageal tube connected to a vacuum pump. The pH of ruminal fluid was measured, and ruminal fluid was analyzed to determine short-chain fatty acid and ammonia concentrations. Data were analyzed with fixed effect of treatment and random effect of block. Polynomial contrasts were calculated to assess linear, quadratic, and cubic effects with repeated measures statement for variables analyzed over time. Starter intake, average daily gain, body weight, and feed efficiency did not differ among treatments. Crude protein and ether extract digestibility were affected in a cubic manner, where CP was greatest for CM0, CM30, and CM45, and ether extract digestibility was least for CM15 and CM60. The molar proportion of acetate responded cubically, but the proportions of propionate and butyrate did not differ among treatments. Ruminal ammonia and plasma urea concentrations were not affected by CM inclusion rate. In conclusion, CM can replace up to 60% of the CP provided from SBM without affecting starter intake and growth of calves.

Short communication: A pilot study to describe duodenal and ileal flows of nutrients and to estimate small intestine endogenous protein losses in weaned calves

The aims of this pilot study were (1) to evaluate the effect of an ileal and duodenal cannulation surgery on body weight and dry matter intake, (2) to estimate endogenous losses of crude protein (CP) and AA in the small intestine, and (3) to describe duodenal and ileal flows of nutrients in weaned dairy calves. Three Holstein male calves were fitted at 7 wk of life with a T-cannula at the terminal ileum and another cannula at the proximal duodenum. On wk 14 of life, calves were randomly assigned to a single 3 × 3 Latin square with 10-d periods. The 3 diets were fed ad libitum and consisted of a control calf starter (CS) with conventional soybean meal (SBM) as the main source of protein (CTRL), an isonitrogenous (20% CP) CS with an enzyme-treated SBM as the main source of protein (ENZT), and a CS with low content of CP (10%) and no soy protein (LOCP). Flows and digestibilities of nutrients were compared between the soy-based high-protein diets (HICP) and LOCP, and between CTRL and ENZT. Final data were only available from 2 calves per diet (n = 2) because cannulas from 1 calf became inoperative after the first collection period. Duodenal flows of CP, total AA, nonprotein nitrogen, microbial N, and fatty acids, as well as apparent duodenal digestibility of starch, were greater for HICP than for LOCP, indicating a greater foregut microbial activity and digestion. The apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of organic matter, CP, and total AA were greater for HICP than for LOCP. Duodenal net flow of CP was greater for ENZT than for CTRL, but flow of AA was not different. On the other hand, duodenal flow of microbial N was greater, and flows of nonprotein N and starch were lower for the ENZT diet, suggesting a more efficient microbial activity in the rumen. Even though CTRL had a greater AID when compared with ENZT, the AID of CP and AA were greater for enzyme-treated SBM than for SBM. Endogenous losses in the small intestine per kilogram of duodenal dry matter flow were 47 ± 15 and 37 ± 12 g/d, and the true ileal digestibilities for the HICP diets were 86 ± 0.1 and 87 ± 0.1% for CP and AA, respectively. An optimal supply of CP and the inclusion of an enzyme-treated SBM improved the efficiency of microbial digestion and increased AA absorption. Although further research with greater biological replication is needed, our results indicate that there is potential to improve digestion and absorption of proteins through dietary strategies in young weaned calves.

Ileal digestibility and endogenous protein losses of milk replacers based on whey proteins alone or with an enzyme-treated soybean meal in young dairy calves

Our objective was to measure and compare apparent ileal digestibility, standard ileal digestibility, and true ileal digestibility of crude protein (CP) and amino acids (AA) in milk replacers (MR) containing all milk proteins (WPC) or with 50% of the CP provided by an enzyme-treated soybean meal (ESBM). A T-cannula was placed in the ileum of 9 Holstein calves (8 males and 1 freemartin female) at approximately 15 d of age. After 2 wk postsurgery, calves were randomly assigned to a 3 × 3 replicated Latin square with 5-d periods. Calves were fed twice daily at a rate of 2% (dry matter) of body weight (1.25 kg/d on average), reconstituted to 15% solids, and adjusted weekly. No starter was offered to minimize rumen development. Digesta samples were collected continuously during 12 h on d 4 and 5 of each period. Basal endogenous losses of AA and CP were estimated by feeding an N-free MR to each calf during 1 period. Total endogenous losses (basal + specific; ENDtotal) were estimated by multivariate regression of the chi-squared distances between digesta and reference protein AA profiles. Ileal digesta pH with the ESBM diet was lower than that with the WPC diet. According to the piecewise nonlinear model of pH fluctuation, digesta pH during ESBM decreased more slowly after feeding and reached its nadir later than with the WPC diet. Diet did not affect average daily gain, but calves on the ESBM diet showed a bigger increment of withers height and lower mean fecal scores. The basal endogenous losses of AA and CP were 13.9 ± 1.1 and 22.4 ± 1.1 g/kg of dry matter intake, respectively. The estimated ENDtotal of AA and CP was higher with ESBM than with WPC. Accordingly, apparent ileal digestibility and standard ileal digestibility of most AA, CP, and total AA were lower or tended to be lower with ESBM. However, true ileal digestibility did not differ between diets for CP and all AA except Ala and Ile, which were greater with WPC, and Arg, which tended to be greater with ESBM. In agreement with the estimated differences in ENDtotal, we found that flows of digesta DNA and crude mucin were greater with ESBM. Substitution of 50% of the protein from whey with enzymatically treated soybean meal did not affect major nutrient digestibility or calf growth and even improved fecal consistency. Adjusting digestibilities of CP and AA in MR by endogenous protein losses is crucial when comparing bioavailability of alternative proteins and milk proteins.

Ileal and hindgut fermentation in the growing pig fed a human-type diet

Dietary fibre fermentation in humans and monogastric animals is considered to occur in the hindgut, but it may also occur in the lower small intestine. This study aimed to compare ileal and hindgut fermentation in the growing pig fed a human-type diet using a combined in vivo/in vitro methodology. Five pigs (23 (sd 1·6) kg body weight) were fed a human-type diet. On day 15, pigs were euthanised. Digesta from terminal jejunum and terminal ileum were collected as substrates for fermentation. Ileal and caecal digesta were collected for preparing microbial inocula. Terminal jejunal digesta were fermented in vitro with a pooled ileal digesta inoculum for 2 h, whereas terminal ileal digesta were fermented in vitro with a pooled caecal digesta inoculum for 24 h. The ileal organic matter fermentability (28 %) was not different from hindgut fermentation (35 %). However, the organic matter fermented was 66 % greater for ileal fermentation than hindgut fermentation (P = 0·04). Total numbers of bacteria in ileal and caecal digesta did not differ (P = 0·09). Differences (P < 0·05) were observed in the taxonomic composition. For instance, ileal digesta contained 32-fold greater number of the genus Enterococcus, whereas caecal digesta had a 227-fold greater number of the genus Ruminococcus. Acetate synthesis and iso-valerate synthesis were greater (P < 0·05) for ileal fermentation than hindgut fermentation, but propionate, butyrate and valerate synthesis was lower. SCFA were absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract location where they were synthesised. In conclusion, a quantitatively important degree of fermentation occurs in the ileum of the growing pig fed a human-type diet.

Relationship between Dietary Fiber Fermentation and Volatile Fatty Acids' Concentration in Growing Pigs

Simple Summary

The study suggests differences in fermentable capacity of fibrous feed ingredients are associated with fiber composition in pig. Results demonstrate that the fiber digestibility of oat bran, sugar beet pulp and soybean hulls is greater than for corn bran, wheat bran and rice bran in the pig intestine. Furthermore, results indicate that volatile fatty acids’ concentration (VFA) is positively correlated primarily with insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) fermentation, and the digestibility of IDF is the best single variable to predict fecal VFA concentrations. The contribution of this study is to provide instructions on how to implement fiber-rich ingredients effectively in the feed formulation for swine.

Abstract

This study was conducted to determine whether differences in fiber fermentation in fiber-rich feed ingredients exist and to assess relationship between fiber fermentation and concentration of volatile fatty acids (VFA) in pig. Castrated males (barrows) were allotted randomly to six diets formulated with different amounts of wheat bran (WB), corn bran (CB), sugar beet pulp (SBP), oat bran (OB), soybean hulls (SH) or rice bran (RB). The apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of soluble dietary fiber (SDF) for OB and SH diets was greater (P < 0.05) than for the other diets. The fermentation of total dietary fiber (TDF) and insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) in the hindgut were greater (P < 0.05) for SBP and SH diets than for WB, CB, OB and RB diets. The apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) values of all fiber components in SBP, SH and OB diets were greater (P < 0.05) than for WB, CB and RB diets. The concentration of VFA in feces was positively correlated with the ATTD of IDF and cellulose, and ATTD of IDF is the best factor for predicting fecal VFA concentration. Overall, dietary fiber source affected fermentable characteristics of fiber components in the different digestive segments of pig intestine.

In vitro unfermented fiber is a good predictor of the digestible and metabolizable energy content of corn distillers dried grains with solubles in growing pigs1

Characterizing fiber into fermentable and unfermentable fractions may enhance the accuracy of estimating DE and ME energy content in fiber-rich ingredients. Therefore, the objective of this study was to analyze the concentrations of NDF, representing both the fermentable (fNDFom) and unfermentable (uNDFom) portions among sources of corn distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS), and determine their relative contributions to DE and ME content. The concentrations of DE and ME, as well as apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of GE, were measured in a previous experiment. Samples of DDGS (0.5 g) were mixed with fecal inoculum and incubated for 8, 12, and 72 h. The ash corrected NDF (NDFom) content of DDGS residues at each time point was determined. The fNDFom increased with fermentation time of 8 h (21.6%), 12 h (29.0%), and 72 h (68.6%). The ATTD of GE increased as the uNDFom decreased at 8 h (uNDFom8; R2 = 0.83; P < 0.01) and 72 h (uNDFom72; R2 = 0.83; P < 0.01). Likewise, ME content of DDGS increased as uNDFom72 decreased (R2 = 0.59; P < 0.01). The best-fit DE equation was DE (kcal/kg DM) = 2,175 - 3.07 × uNDFom8 (g/kg, DM) - 1.50 × uNDFom72 (g/kg, DM) + 0.55 × GE (kcal/kg DM) (R2 = 0.94, SE = 36.21). The best-fit ME equation was ME (kcal/kg DM) = 1,643 - 2.31 × uNDFom8 (g/kg, DM) - 2.54 × uNDFom72 (g/kg, DM) + 0.65 × GE (kcal/kg DM) - 1.42 × crude protein (g/kg DM) (R2 = 0.94, SE = 39.21). These results indicate that in vitro unfermented fiber is negatively associated with GE and NDF digestibility, and therefore, is a good predictor of DE and ME content in corn-DDGS.

Degradation of dietary fiber in the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine of growing pigs fed corn- or wheat-based diets without or with microbial xylanase

An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that microbial xylanases may contribute to the degradation of fiber in wheat and wheat-based diets and in corn and corn-based diets along the intestinal tract of pigs. Twenty-four growing barrows (initial BW: 28.51 ± 1.86 kg) were prepared with a T-cannula in the proximal duodenum and another T-cannula in the distal ileum and allotted to a replicated 12 × 4 Youden square design with 12 diets and four 18-d periods. Two diets based on corn and soybean meal (SBM) or corn, SBM, and 30% distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) were formulated and two diets based on wheat and SBM or wheat, SBM, and 30% wheat middlings were also formulated. The four diets were formulated without microbial xylanase, or with one of two microbial xylanases (xylanase A or xylanase B) for a total of 12 diets. Feces and urine were collected on days 8 to 13, ileal digesta were collected on days 15 and 16, and duodenal digesta were collected on days 17 and 18 of each period. The apparent duodenal digestibility (ADD), apparent ileal digestibility (AID), and apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of GE, nutrients, and dietary fiber were calculated. Results indicated that the AID of GE in corn-SBM or wheat-SBM diets was greater (P < 0.05) than in the corn-SBM-DDGS and wheat-SBM-wheat middlings diets, but no difference was observed for the AID of dietary fiber between wheat-SBM and wheat-SBM-wheat middlings diets. The ATTD of dietary fiber was also greater (P < 0.05) in corn-SBM and wheat-SBM diets compared with corn-SBM-DDGS and wheat-SBM-wheat middlings diets, which indicates that the concentration of dietary fiber may influence the degree of fermentation of fiber. Inclusion of xylanase A or B improved (P < 0.05) the ADD and the ATTD of dietary fiber in wheat-based diets, indicating activity of xylanase in the gastro-intestinal tract of pigs. Inclusion of xylanase A improved (P < 0.05) the concentration of DE and ME in wheat-SBM-wheat middlings diets and xylanase B improved (P < 0.05) the concentration of DE in wheat-based diets and improved (P < 0.05) the concentration of the ME in wheat-SBM diet. In conclusion, the xylanases used in this experiment improved the digestibility of dietary fiber in the stomach and hindgut and improved the energy status of pigs fed wheat-based diets, but not of pigs fed corn-based diets.

A dietary carbohydrase blend improved intestinal barrier function and growth rate in weaned pigs fed higher fiber diets

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of dietary xylanase (X) and a carbohydrase enzyme blend (EB: cellulase, β-glucanase, and xylanase) on nutrient digestibility, intestinal barrier integrity, inflammatory status, and growth performance in weaned piglets fed higher fiber diets. A total of 460 pigs (6.43 ± 0.06 kg BW; F25 × 6.0 Genetiporc) were blocked by initial BW and pens (n = 12 per treatment) were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 dietary treatments. The diets included a higher fiber unsupplemented control diet (CON) and the CON supplemented with 0.01% X, 0.01% EB, or both enzymes, arranged in a 2 × 2 factorial. The diets were based on corn, soybean meal, corn distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS), and wheat middlings. Pigs had 7 d to adapt to the environment and consumed the same commercial diet. Pigs were fed the experimental diets for 28 d with free access to feed and water. Body weight and feed disappearance were recorded weekly. One pig with BW closest to the pen average from each pen was selected and moved to metabolism crates on day 16 and intragastric gavaged a solution of lactulose and mannitol on day 22 followed by 12-h urine collection. Feces were collected from day 23 to 25. Intestinal tissues and mucosal scrapings were collected on day 28. Data were analyzed using PROC MIXED of SAS (9.4). Xylanase, EB, and their interaction were fixed effects and block was a random effect. The EB, but not X, increased pig BW and improved ADG over 28 d (P < 0.05). Neither carbohydrase impacted ADFI, G:F, or apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of DM, GE, or CP. The EB improved ATTD of ADF (32.45 vs. 26.57%; P < 0.01), but had no effect on NDF. Unexpectedly, X reduced ATTD of NDF and ADF (P < 0.01). The EB reduced urinary lactulose:mannitol and increased ileal claudin-3 mRNA abundance (P < 0.05), indicating improved small intestinal barrier integrity. There was a X × EB interaction on ileal secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) concentration (P < 0.05); in the absence of X, EB decreased sIgA compared to CON, but this effect disappeared in the presence of X. The EB also reduced ileal IL-22 mRNA abundance (P < 0.05), probably indicating decreased immune activation. In conclusion, EB but not X enhanced growth rate of weaned pigs fed higher fiber diets, which may be partly explained by the improved small intestinal barrier integrity and reduced immune activation, rather than improvement in nutrient digestibility.

Effects of physicochemical characteristics of feed ingredients on the apparent total tract digestibility of energy, DM, and nutrients by growing pigs

Effects of physicochemical characteristics of feed ingredients on DE and ME and apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of GE, DM, and nutrients were determined in growing pigs using ingredients with different ratios between insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) and soluble dietary fiber (SDF). Eighty growing barrows (BW: 48.41 ± 1.50 kg) were allotted to a randomized complete block design with 10 diets and eight replicate pigs per diet. Dietary treatments included a corn-based diet, a wheat-based diet, a corn-soybean meal (SBM) diet, and seven diets based on a mixture of the corn-SBM diet and canola meal, distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS), corn germ meal (CGM), copra expellers, sugar beet pulp (SBP), synthetic cellulose, or pectin. Values for the ATTD of DM and nutrients were also compared with the in vitro digestibility of GE, DM, and nutrients. Results indicated that the ATTD of GE was greater (P < 0.05) in wheat than in canola meal, DDGS, CGM, copra expellers, SBP, and synthetic cellulose, but not different from corn, SBM, or pectin. SBM had greater (P < 0.05) DE and ME (DM basis) compared with all other ingredients. The concentration of ME (DM basis) was greater (P < 0.05) in wheat than in canola meal, DDGS, CGM, copra expellers, SBP, synthetic cellulose, and pectin, but not different from corn. Stronger correlations between total dietary fiber (TDF) and DE and ME than between ADF or NDF and DE and ME were observed, indicating that TDF can be used to more accurately predict DE and ME than values for NDF or ADF. The DE, ME, and the ATTD of DM in ingredients were positively correlated (P < 0.05) with in vitro ATTD of DM, indicating that the in vitro procedure may be used to estimate DE and ME in feed ingredients. Swelling and water-binding capacity were positively correlated (P < 0.05) with the ATTD of IDF, TDF, nonstarch polysaccharides (NSP), and insoluble NSP, and viscosity was positively correlated (P < 0.05) with the ATTD of NDF, IDF, and insoluble NSP, indicating that some physical characteristics may influence digestibility of fiber. However, physical characteristics of feed ingredients were not correlated with the concentration of DE and ME, which indicates that these parameters do not influence in vivo energy digestibility in feed ingredients. It is concluded that the DE and ME in feed ingredients may be predicted from some chemical constituents and from in vitro digestibility of DM, but not from physical characteristics.

Use of in vitro dry matter digestibility and gas production to predict apparent total tract digestibility of total dietary fiber for growing pigs

In vitro DM disappearance (IVDMD) and gas production methods have been developed and used to measure in vivo nutrient digestibility of feed ingredients, but further validation is needed for ingredients containing high concentrations of insoluble fiber such as corn distiller's dried grains with solubles (DDGS). A 3-step in vitro procedure and resulting gas production were used to predict in vivo apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of total dietary fiber (TDF) among 3 sources each of wheat straw (WS), soybean hulls (SBH), and DDGS. A total of 34 barrows and 2 gilts (84 ± 7 kg BW) were used in a changeover design to determine the ATTD of 9 dietary treatments. The WS, SBH, or DDGS sources were the only ingredients containing fiber in each diet, and all diets were formulated to contain the same TDF concentration (22.3%). The in vivo experiment was conducted in 2 consecutive 13-d periods, each including a 10-d adaptation and a 3-d collection period to provide 8 replications/dietary treatment, and 0.5% TiO was added to each diet as an indigestible marker. Pigs had ad libitum access to water and were fed an amount of feed equivalent to 2.5% of initial BW in each period. The in vitro experiment was used to determine IVDMD and gas production of the 9 ingredients (5 to 8 replicates/ingredient) fed during the in vivo experiment. Gas production kinetics were fitted using a nonlinear model and analyzed using a mixed model, and predictions were evaluated using correlations and regression models. There were differences ( < 0.01) in ATTD of TDF among WS (26.7%), SBH (78.9%), and DDGS (43.0%) and among sources of DDGS (36.0 to 49.8%). Differences ( < 0.05) in IVDMD from simulated gastric and small intestinal hydrolysis were observed among WS (13.3%), SBH (18.9%), and DDGS (53.7%) and among sources of WS (12.8 to 13.8%), SBH (17.0 to 20.5%), and DDGS (52.0 to 56.9%). Differences ( < 0.05) in IVDMD from simulated large intestine fermentation (IVDMDf) were also observed among WS (23.3%), SBH (84.6%), and DDGS (69.6%) and among sources of WS (18.7 vs. 26.8%). In vitro DM disappearance from simulated total tract digestion of SBH (88.9%) and DDGS (86.1%) were greater ( < 0.01) than that of WS (33.5%). Differences ( < 0.01) in asymptotic gas production (A; mL/g DM substrate) were observed among WS (121), SBH (412), and DDGS (317), and ATTD of TDF was highly correlated with IVDMDf and A. In conclusion, low variability in ATTD of TDF and IVDMD among sources of WS and SBH evaluated in the current study may not justify the use of in vitro measurements, but in vitro fermentation accurately predicts ATTD of TDF among sources of corn DDGS.

Procedures for determining digestibility of amino acids, lipids, starch, fibre, phosphorus, and calcium in feed ingredients fed to pigs

The proportion of nutrients that is absorbed from the intestinal tract of the pig differs among dietary ingredients; therefore, it would be desirable to determine the proportion of nutrients that is absorbed for each ingredient, but, for practical reasons, values for the digestibility of nutrients in each ingredient are used as predictors of absorption. For amino acids, starch and lipids, ileal digestibility must be determined because nutrients not absorbed in the small intestine will be fermented or changed in the large intestine, which invalidates data for total tract digestibility of these nutrients. For starch, apparent ileal digestibility is a reasonable predictor of its disappearance from the small intestine, but because of endogenous secretions of amino acids and lipids into the small intestine, standardised ileal digestibility of amino acids and true ileal digestibility of fat must be determined. For fibre, total tract digestibility is used to estimate fermentation and subsequent absorption of short-chain fatty acids, but it must be corrected for endogenous secretions. Likewise, for phosphorus and calcium, values for apparent total tract digestibility must be corrected for basal endogenous losses; consequently, standardised total tract digestibility of phosphorus and calcium is calculated and used in diet formulation. These procedures for determining the digestibility of nutrients in feed ingredients make it possible to formulate diets in which concentrations of digestible nutrients can be predicted from values for individual feed ingredients.

β-Glucans and Resistant Starch Alter the Fermentation of Recalcitrant Fibers in Growing Pigs

Interactions among dietary ingredients are often assumed non-existent when evaluating the nutritive value and health effects of dietary fiber. Specific fibers can distinctly affect digestive processes; therefore, digestibility and fermentability of the complete diet may depend on fiber types present. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of readily fermentable fibers (β-glucans and resistant starch) on the degradation of feed ingredients containing more persistent, recalcitrant, fibers. Six semi-synthetic diets with recalcitrant fibers from rapeseed meal (pectic polysaccharides, xyloglucans, and cellulose) or corn distillers dried grain with solubles (DDGS; (glucurono)arabinoxylans and cellulose) with or without inclusion of β-glucans (6%) or retrograded tapioca (40%) substituted for corn starch were formulated. Six ileal-cannulated pigs (BW 28±1.4 kg) were assigned to the diets according to a 6×6 Latin square. β-glucan-extract increased apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of non-glucosyl polysaccharides (accounting for ~40% of the fiber-fraction) from rapeseed meal (6%-units, P<0.001), but did not affect non-glucosyl polysaccharides from DDGS. Retrograded tapioca reduced ATTD of non-glucosyl polysaccharides from rapeseed meal and DDGS (>10%-units, P<0.001), indicating that the large amount of resistant starch entering the hindgut was preferentially degraded over recalcitrant fibers from rapeseed meal and DDGS, possibly related to reduced hindgut-retention time following the increased intestinal bulk. Fermentation of fiber sources was not only dependent on fiber characteristics, but also on the presence of other fibers in the diet. Hence, interactions in the gastrointestinal tract among fibrous feed ingredients should be considered when evaluating their nutritive value.