The tissue-type plasminogen activator inhibitor ETIa from Erythrina variegata: structural basis for the inhibitory activity by cloning, expression, and mutagenesis of the cDNA encoding ETIa

Purification, cDNA cloning and characterization of Kunitz-type protease inhibitors from Apios americana tubers

Two kinds of Kunitz-type protease inhibitors, AKPI1 and AKPI2, were purified from Apios americana tubers by four steps of column chromatographies and their cDNA cloning was performed. AKPI1 cDNA consist of 809 nucleotides, and the matured protein had 190 amino acids with 20,594 Da. AKPI2 cDNA consist of 794 nucleotides, and the matured protein had 177 amino acids with 19,336 Da. P1 site of AKPI2 was Leu88, suggested the target enzyme was chymotrypsin. On the other hand, Gly85-Ile86-Ser87 was positioned around P1 site of AKTI1. Sequence analysis suggested that two forms (single-chain and two-chain form) of AKPI2 protein were present in the tubers. Recombinant AKPI2 expressed by E.coli system showed inhibitory activity toward serine proteases and heat stability. The Ki values toward chymotrypsin and trypsin were 4 × 10^-7 M and 6 × 10^-6 M, respectively.Abbreviations: AAL: Apios americana lectin; AATI: Apios americana Bowman-Birk type trypsin inhibitor; ACE: angiotensin-converting enzyme; IPTG: isopropyl-β-D-thio-galactopyranoside; Ki: inhibition constant; KPIs: Kunitz-type protease inhibitors; L-BAPA: Benzoyl-L-arginine p-nitroanilide monohydrochloride; L-BTPA: Benzoyl-L-tyrosine p-nitroanilide; PFLNA: Pyr-Phe-Leu-p-nitroanilide; RP-HPLC: reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography; RT-PCR: reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction; SDS-PAGE: sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; SLIC: sequence and ligation independent cloning; STANA: N-Succinyl-Ala-Ala-Ala-p-nitroanilide; SHR: spontaneously hypertensive rats; TFA: trifluoroacetic acid; UTR: untranslated region.

Contribution of Conserved Asn Residues to the Inhibitory Activities of Kunitz-Type Protease Inhibitors from Plants

Plant Kunitz-type protease inhibitors contain a conserved Asn residue in the N-terminal region. To investigate the role of Asn residue in protease inhibitory activities, Erythrina variegata trypsin inhibitor a (ETIa), E. variegata chymotrypsin inhibitor (ECI), and their mutants, ETIa-N12A and ECI-N13A, were used. Both mutants exhibit weaker inhibitory activities toward their cognate proteases than the wild-type proteins and were readily cleaved at reactive sites. Furthermore, kinetic analysis of the interactions of the mutated proteins with their cognate proteases by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) measurement indicated that replacements of the Asn residue mainly affected dissociation rate constants. The conserved Asn residues of Kunitz-type inhibitors play an important role in exhibiting effective inhibitory activity by stabilizing the structures of the primary binding loop and protease-inhibitor complex.

Evidence that highly conserved residues of Delonix regia trypsin inhibitor are important for activity

Delonix regia trypsin inhibitor (DrTI) consists of a single-polypeptide chain with a molecular mass of 22 kDa and containing two disulfide bonds (Cys44-Cys89 and Cys139-Cys149). Sequence comparison with other plant trypsin inhibitors of the Kunitz family reveals that DrTI contains a negatively charged residue (Glu68) at the reactive site rather than the conserved Arg or Lys found in other Kunitz-type trypsin inhibitors. Site-directed mutagenesis yielded five mutants containing substitutions at the reactive site and at one of the disulfide bonds. Assay of the recombinant proteins showed mutant Glu68Leu and Glu68Lys to have only 4-5% of the wild-type activity. These provide evidence that the Glu68 residue is the reactive site for DrTI and various other Kunitz-type trypsin inhibitors. The Cys139Gly mutant lost its inhibitory activity, whereas the Cys44Gly mutant did not, indicating that the second disulfide bond (Cys139-Cys149) is critical to DrTI inhibitory activity, while the first disulfide bond (Cys44-Cys89) is not required.

Effect of Erythrina variegata seed extract on hyperlipidemia elicited by high-fat diet in wistar rats

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of the methanolic extract of Erythrina variegata (Linn.) var Orientalis (Fabaceae) seeds (MEEV) in reducing the cholesterol levels and as well as antioxidant in experimentally induced hyperlipidemic rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg of the extract were evaluated for its effect on lipid profile, HMG-CoA reductase, and on antioxidant enzymes in high-fat diet (HFD) induced hyperlipidemia.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

The elevated levels of total cholesterol, triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein, and very low density lipoprotein due to HFD was reduced by concurrent treatment with MEEV (200 and 400 mg/kg) significantly (P<0.001). A significant reduction (P<0.001) in high-density lipoprotein was noticed in HFD fed groups; however, a nonsignificant increment was produced by the administration of MEEV (200 and 400 mg/kg). The HMG-CoA reductase activity was increased in HFD fed animals significantly (P<0.001) and was reduced by MEEV 400 mg/kg significantly (P<0.001). There was a noticed increase in the body weight and mesenteric fat pad weight in HFD fed group (P<0.001), which was reduced by the administration of MEEV (200 and 400 mg/kg). The antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase and catalase were reduced significantly in the HFD fed group, whose levels were increased significantly (P<0.001) by the administration of MEEV (200 and 400 mg/kg). Lipid peroxidation was increased in HFD fed animals, which was reduced significantly (P<0.001) by the treatment with MEEV (200 and 400 mg/kg).

Crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of a protease inhibitor from the latex of Carica papaya

A Kunitz-type protease inhibitor purified from the latex of green papaya (Carica papaya) fruits was crystallized in the presence and absence of divalent metal ions. Crystal form I, which is devoid of divalent cations, diffracts to a resolution of 2.6 A and belongs to space group P3(1) or P3(2). This crystal form is a merohedral twin with two molecules in the asymmetric unit and unit-cell parameters a = b = 74.70, c = 78.97 A. Crystal form II, which was grown in the presence of Co2+, diffracts to a resolution of 1.7 A and belongs to space group P2(1)2(1)2(1), with unit-cell parameters a = 44.26, b = 81.99, c = 140.89 A.

Protein engineering of novel proteinase inhibitors and their effects on the growth of Spodoptera exigua larvae

Novel types of proteinase inhibitors with multi-inhibitory activities were generated by replacement of phytocystatin domains in sunflower multi-cystatin (SMC) by the serine proteinase inhibitor BGIT from bitter gourd seeds. Two chimeric inhibitors SMC-T3 and SMC-T23, in which the third domain in SMC and the second and third domains in SMC were replaced by BGIT, acquired trypsin inhibitory activity (Ki: 1.46 x 10(-7) M and 1.75 x 10(-7) M), retaining inhibitory activity toward papain (Ki: 4.5 x 10(-8) M and 1.52 x 10(-7) M), respectively. We compared the chimeric inhibitors and the recombinant SMC (r-SMC) in relation to their effects on the growth of larval Spodoptera exigua. When the second instar larvae were reared on a diet containing rSMC, SMC-T3, or SMC-T23 for ten days, a significant reduction in weight gain was observed. Mean weights for rSMC, SMC-T3, and SMC-T23 were 43 mg, 32 mg, and 43 mg, respectively, as compared with that (60 mg) for the absence of the inhibitor. In contrast, BGIT had little effect on the growth of the S. exigua larvae. This result indicated that the chimeric inhibitor SMC-T3 with two phytocystatin domains and one serine proteinase inhibitor domain is an efficient inhibitor of proteinases in the S. exigua larvae. Therefore, this novel type of proteinase inhibitor with multi-inhibitory activities may represent a promising protein for successful application to a transgenic plant with insect resistance.

Secretion of active recombinant human tissue plasminogen activator derivatives in Escherichia coli

The DNA fragment coding for kringle 2 plus serine protease domains (K2S) of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) was inserted into a phagemid vector, pComb3HSS. In the recombinant vector, pComb3H-K2S, the K2S gene was fused to gpIII of PhiM13 and linked to the OmpA signal sequence. The resulting gene, rK2S-gpIII, was inducibly expressed in Escherichia coli XL-1 Blue. The protein was presented on the phage particle. To stop the expression of gpIII, a stop codon between K2S and the gpIII gene was inserted by site-directed mutagenesis. This mutated vector, MpComb3H-K2S, was transformed in XL-1 Blue. After induction with IPTG (isopropyl-beta-D-thiogalactopyranoside), rK2S was found both in the periplasm as an inactive form of approximately 32% and in the culture supernatant as an active form of approximately 68%. The secreted form of rK2S was partially purified by ammonium sulfate (55%) precipitation. The periplasmic form was isolated from whole cells by chloroform extraction. The fibrin binding site of kringle 2 was demonstrated in all expressed versions (phage-bound, periplasmic, and secreted forms) using the monoclonal anti-kringle 2 antibody (16/B). Only the secreted form of rK2S revealed a fibrinogen-dependent amidolytic activity with the specific activity of 236 IU/microg. No amidolytic activity of rK2S was observed in either the periplasmic or the phage-bound form. The secretion of rK2S as an active enzyme offers a novel approach for the production of the active-domain deletion mutant tPA, rK2S, without any requirements for bacterial compartment preparation and in vitro refolding processes. This finding is an important technological advance in the development of large-scale, bacterium-based tPA production systems.

Site-directed mutagenesis evidence for a negatively charged trypsin inhibitory loop in sweet potato sporamin

Sporamin, a sweet potato tuberous storage protein, has trypsin inhibitory activity. Sequence comparison with other plant trypsin inhibitors (TIs) of the Kunitz family reveals that, instead of the conserved Arg or Lys found in other Kunitz TIs, sporamin contains a negatively charged residue (Asp70 or Glu72) at the P1 reactive site. Using site-directed mutagenesis, six mutants were generated containing substitutions at the reactive site and at one of the disulfide bonds, and the recombinant proteins were assayed for TI activity. Mutants Asp70Val and Glu72Arg were found to have only 2-3% of the wild-type activity. These results provide the first evidence for a negatively charged trypsin inhibitory loop and a new mechanism of trypsin inhibition in the Kunitz family.

Kunitz-type soybean trypsin inhibitor revisited: refined structure of its complex with porcine trypsin reveals an insight into the interaction between a homologous inhibitor from Erythrina caffra and tissue-type plasminogen activator

The Kunitz-type trypsin inhibitor from soybean (STI) consists of 181 amino acid residues with two disulfide bridges. Its crystal structures have been determined in complex with porcine pancreatic trypsin in two crystal forms (an orthorhombic form at 1.75 A resolution and a tetragonal form at 1.9 A) and in the free state at 2.3 A resolution. They have been refined to crystallographic R-values of 18.9%, 21.6% and 19.8%, respectively. The three models of STI reported here represent a significant improvement over the partial inhibitor structure in the complex, which was previously determined at a nominal resolution of 2.6 A by the multiple isomorphous replacement method. This study provides the first high-resolution picture of the complex between a Kunitz-type proteinase inhibitor with its cognate proteinase. Many of the external loops of STI show high B-factors, both in the free and the complexed states, except the reactive site loop whose B-factors are dramatically reduced upon complexation. The reactive site loop of STI adopts a canonical conformation similar to those in other substrate-like inhibitors. The P1 carbonyl group displays no out-of-plane displacement and thus retains a nominal trigonal planar geometry. Modeling studies on the complex between a homologous Kunitz-type trypsin inhibitor DE-3 from Erythrina caffra and the human tissue-type plasminogen activator reveal a new insight into the specific interactions which could play a crucial role in their binding.