Gold nanorods/tetrahedral DNA composites for chemo-photothermal therapy

Organelle-oriented nanomedicines in tumor therapy: Targeting, escaping, or collaborating?

Precise tumor therapy is essential for improving treatment specificity, enhancing efficacy, and minimizing side effects. Targeting organelles is a key strategy for achieving this goal and is a frontier research area attracting a considerable amount of attention. The concept of organelle targeting has a significant effect on the structural design of the nanodrugs employed. Most notably, the intricate interactions among different organelles in a tumor cell essentially create a unified system. Unfortunately, this aspect might have been somewhat overlooked when existing organelle-targeting nanodrugs were designed. In this review, we underscore the synergistic relationship among the various organelles and advocate for a holistic view of organelle-targeting design. Through the integration of biology and material science, recent advancements in organelle targeting, escaping, and collaborating are consolidated to offer fresh perspectives for the development of antitumor nanomedicines.

Polyethyleneimine/gold nanorods conjugated with carbon quantum dots and hyaluronic acid for chemo-photothermal therapy of breast cancer

The aim of this study was to develop a stable polyethyleneimine/gold nanorod composite conjugated with a carbon quantum dot (CQD) and hyaluronic acid (HA) complex (CQD-HA-PEI@GNRs) for applications in chemotherapy and photothermal therapy. GNRs were synthesized using a seed-mediated growth method, and the amount of seed solution was optimized to obtain GNRs with an optimal aspect ratio and a strong peak in the near-infrared (NIR) region. The surface of the GNRs was then modified with polyethylene imine (PEI). In parallel, CQDs were synthesized through a hydrothermal method and subsequently conjugated with HA to act as an active targeting ligand. The resulting CQD-HA complex was loaded onto the surface of the PEI@GNR composite. Finally, the anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) was effectively loaded onto this innovative complex. The cytotoxicity of the final complex was evaluated on different cell lines in the presence and absence of laser irradiation. Furthermore, the efficacy of the formulation was investigated in BALB/c mice bearing breast cancer tumors. Characterization results confirmed the successful formation of GNRs with a length of 40 nm, exhibiting a strong peak at 813 nm in the NIR region. The zeta potential value of the GNRs was -25.62 mV, which increased to +40.59 mV after the surface modification with PEI. CQDs were synthesized and successfully conjugated with HA. DOX encapsulation efficiency was 92.8%, with appropriate drug release profiles in the presence of laser irradiation. The final complex showed appropriate cytotoxicity toward 4T1 and MCF7 breast cancer cell lines. In vivo analysis of the CQD-HA-PEI@GNR-DOX complex combined with laser treatment demonstrated significant tumor growth inhibition in comparison to the control group. Finally, this novel complex was proposed as an alternative for breast cancer treatment.

DNA tetrahedral nanoparticles: Co-delivery of siOTUD6B/DOX against triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive subtype of breast cancer with limited targeted therapeutic options. Recently, the deubiquitinizing enzyme ovarian tumor domain-containing 6B (OTUD6B) has been reported to play a potential role in TNBC progression. Therefore, this study investigates the role and underlying molecular mechanisms of OTUD6B in vitro and xenograft models of TNBC. Specifically, we examined the therapeutic effects of siOTUD6B and doxorubicin (DOX) co-delivery using synthesized tetrahedral DNA nanoparticles (Tds) on tumor growth and progression. Additionally, the uptake and efficacy of the siOTUD6B/DOX@Td in TNBC cells were evaluated. Notably, the siOTUD6B/DOX@Td nanoparticle demonstrated efficient cellular uptake by TNBC cells, resulting in OTUD6B knockdown and controlled release of DOX. Additionally, siOTUD6B/DOX@Td treatment enhanced apoptosis rates increased DOX sensitivity, and inhibited TNBC cell growth, migration, and metastasis. Moreover, in vivo experiments confirmed that siOTUD6B/DOX@Td treatment inhibited tumor growth and metastasis without damaging the primary organs. Mechanistically, OTUD6B regulates TNBC progression by stabilizing murine double minute 2 (MDM2) and degrading forkhead box O3a (FOXO3a). Conclusively, this study demonstrates the potential applicability of DNA nanoparticles loaded with DOX and siOTUD6B for TNBC treatment.

Mitochondria-targeting nanomedicines with autophagy inhibitor to enhance cancer photothermal-chemotherapy

In this article, we fabricated nanomedicines with mitochondrial targeting function and autophagy inhibitor for enhancing cancer photothermal-chemotherapy. The nanoparticles were fabricated with gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) as cores and amphiphilic dextran with (3-carboxypropyl) triphenyl phosphorus bromide and β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) modification (TPP-DCD) as shells; the chemotherapeutic doxorubicin (DOX) and autophagy inhibitor chloroquine (CQ) were encapsulated in the nanoparticles. The TPP-DCD was synthesized via the immobilization of 2-aminoethanethiol modified β-CD and (3-carboxypropyl) triphenylphosphonium bromide on dextran to receive coordination interaction with AuNPs and mitochondria targeting. The size, morphology and properties of the Au@DOX/CQ@TPP-DCD nanoparticles were studied. The nanomedicines efficiently targeted cellular mitochondria to produce reactive oxygen species and photothermal effect under NIR irradiation. The released DOX and CQ could not only kill tumor cells directly, but also inhibit the autophagy of cancer cells to enhance therapeutic effects. Both in vitro and in vivo anticancer activities of the nanomedicines were investigated in detail. The in vivo imaging demonstrated that the Au@DOX/CQ@TPP-DCD nanomedicines exhibited efficient targeting, accumulation and retention in tumor-bearing mice. The apoptosis of cancer cells and tumor suppression were greatly accelerated with the addition of 808 nm NIR irradiation. The Au@DOX/CQ@TPP-DCD nanomedicine exhibited significant synergistic therapy, as 75% of tumors in mice disappeared. The Au@DOX/CQ@TPP-DCD nanoparticle is a promising nanomedicine for cancer therapy with synergistic effects.

Advancements in nanohydroxyapatite: synthesis, biomedical applications and composite developments

Nanohydroxyapatite (nHA) is distinguished by its exceptional biocompatibility, bioactivity and biodegradability, qualities attributed to its similarity to the mineral component of human bone. This review discusses the synthesis techniques of nHA, highlighting how these methods shape its physicochemical attributes and, in turn, its utility in biomedical applications. The versatility of nHA is further enhanced by doping with biologically significant ions like magnesium or zinc, which can improve its bioactivity and confer therapeutic properties. Notably, nHA-based composites, incorporating metal, polymeric and bioceramic scaffolds, exhibit enhanced osteoconductivity and osteoinductivity. In orthopedic field, nHA and its composites serve effectively as bone graft substitutes, showing exceptional osteointegration and vascularization capabilities. In dentistry, these materials contribute to enamel remineralization, mitigate tooth sensitivity and are employed in surface modification of dental implants. For cancer therapy, nHA composites offer a promising strategy to inhibit tumor growth while sparing healthy tissues. Furthermore, nHA-based composites are emerging as sophisticated platforms with high surface ratio for the delivery of drugs and bioactive substances, gradually releasing therapeutic agents for progressive treatment benefits. Overall, this review delineates the synthesis, modifications and applications of nHA in various biomedical fields, shed light on the future advancements in biomaterials research.

Nanomaterials based on hollow gold nanospheres for cancer therapy

Gold nanoparticles have recently been exploited as versatile nanocarriers in diagnostic and therapeutic drug delivery for cancer nanomedicine, owing to their biocompatibility, low biotoxicity, surface modifiability and plasma optical properties. A variety of gold nanoparticles have emerged for drug delivery, mainly including gold nanorods, gold nanocages, gold nanostars, gold solid nanospheres and hollow gold nanospheres (HGNs). Among these, HGNs have widely been studied for their higher photothermal conversion efficiency, wider spectral absorption range and stronger surface-enhanced Raman scattering compared with solid gold nanospheres. Therefore, nowadays, researchers prefer to use HGNs to other metal nanocarriers, which can not only play the role of controlled-release drugs but also act as photothermal agents for tumor therapy and diagnosis, due to their properties of surface modification. Combined with the Au-S bond on the surface of HGNs, the targeted preparation is loaded to achieve precise drug delivery. With the assistance of the photothermal characteristics of HGNs themselves, the efficacy of loaded drugs in HGNs is enhanced. In addition, HGNs also have vital values in the field of bioimaging, which serve as photothermal imaging agents and Raman scattering-guided preparations due to their surface-enhanced Raman scattering properties to assist researchers in achieving the purpose of tumor diagnosis. In this review, we summarize the synthesis methods of HGNs and the recent application of HGNs-based nanomaterials in the field of cancer diagnosis and therapy. In addition, the issues to be addressed were pointed out for a bright prospect of HGNs-based nanomaterials.

Functional inorganic nanoparticles in cancer: Biomarker detection, imaging, and therapy

Cancer poses a major global public health challenge. Developing more effective early diagnosis methods and efficient treatment techniques is crucial to enhance early detection sensitivity and treatment outcomes. Nanomaterials offer sensitive, accurate, rapid, and straightforward approaches for cancer detection, diagnosis, and treatment. Inorganic nanoparticles are widely used in medicine because of their high stability, large specific surface area, unique surface properties, and unique quantum size effects. Functional inorganic nanoparticles involve modifying inorganic nanoparticles to enhance their physical properties, enrichment capabilities, and drug-loading efficiency and to minimize toxicity. This Review provides an overview of various types of inorganic nanoparticles and their functionalization characteristics. We then discuss the progress of functional inorganic nanoparticles in cancer biomarker detection and imaging. Furthermore, we discuss the application of functional inorganic nanoparticles in radiotherapy, chemotherapy, gene therapy, immunotherapy, photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, sonodynamic therapy, and combination therapy, highlighting their characteristics and advantages. Finally, the toxicity and potential challenges of functional inorganic nanoparticles are analyzed. The purpose of this Review is to explore the application of functional inorganic nanoparticles in diagnosing and treating cancers, while also presenting a new avenue for cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Functionalizing tetrahedral framework nucleic acids-based nanostructures for tumor in situ imaging and treatment

Timely in situ imaging and effective treatment are efficient strategies in improving the therapeutic effect and survival rate of tumor patients. In recent years, there has been rapid progress in the development of DNA nanomaterials for tumor in situ imaging and treatment, due to their unsurpassed structural stability, excellent material editability, excellent biocompatibility and individual endocytic pathway. Tetrahedral framework nucleic acids (tFNAs), are a typical example of DNA nanostructures demonstrating superior stability, biocompatibility, cell-entry performance, and flexible drug-loading ability. tFNAs have been shown to be effective in achieving timely tumor in situ imaging and precise treatment. Therefore, the progress in the fabrication, characterization, modification and cellular internalization pathway of tFNAs-based functional systems and their potential in tumor in situ imaging and treatment applications were systematically reviewed in this article. In addition, challenges and future prospects of tFNAs in tumor in situ imaging and treatment as well as potential clinical applications were discussed.

Recent developments in cancer diagnosis and treatment using nanotechnology

The article provides an insightful overview of the pivotal role of nanotechnology in revolutionizing cancer diagnosis and treatment. It discusses the critical importance of nanoparticles in enhancing the accuracy of cancer detection through improved imaging contrast agents and the synthesis of various nanomaterials designed for oncology applications. The review broadly classifies nanoparticles used in therapeutics, including metallic, magnetic, polymeric, and many other types, with an emphasis on their functions in drug delivery systems for targeted cancer therapy. It details targeting mechanisms, including passive and intentional targeting, to maximize treatment efficacy while minimizing side effects. Furthermore, the article addresses the clinical applications of nanomaterials in cancer treatment, highlights prospects, and addresses the challenges of integrating nanotechnology into cancer treatment.

Aptamer-mediated therapeutic strategies provide a potential approach for cancer

The treatment of tumors still faces considerable challenges. While conventional treatments such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy provide some curative effects, their side effects and limitations highlight the importance of finding more precise treatment strategies. Aptamers have become an important target molecule in the field of drug delivery systems due to their good affinity and targeting, and they have gradually become an important link from basic research to clinical application. In this paper, we discussed the latest progress of aptamer-mediated nanodrugs, as well as aptamer-mediated photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, and immunotherapy strategies for tumor treatment, and explored the possibility of aptamer-mediated therapy for accurate tumor treatment. The purpose of this review is to provide novel insights for treating tumors with aptamer-mediated therapies by summarizing these innovative strategies, thereby ultimately enhancing the therapeutic efficacy for cancer patients.

Revolutionizing cancer therapy using tetrahedral DNA nanostructures as intelligent drug delivery systems

DNA nanostructures have surfaced as intriguing entities with vast potential in biomedicine, notably in the drug delivery area. Tetrahedral DNA nanostructures (TDNs) have received worldwide attention from among an array of different DNA nanostructures due to their extraordinary stability, great biocompatibility, and ease of functionalization. TDNs could be readily synthesized, making them attractive carriers for chemotherapeutic medicines, nucleic acid therapeutics, and imaging probes. Their varied uses encompass medication delivery, molecular diagnostics, biological imaging, and theranostics. This review extensively highlights the mechanisms of functional modification of TDNs and their applications in cancer therapy. Additionally, it discusses critical concerns and unanswered problems that require attention to increase the future application of TDNs in developing cancer treatment.

Cancer cell response to extrinsic and intrinsic mechanical cue: opportunities for tumor apoptosis strategies

Increasing studies have revealed the importance of mechanical cues in tumor progression, invasiveness and drug resistance. During malignant transformation, changes manifest in either the mechanical properties of the tissue or the cellular ability to sense and respond to mechanical signals. The major focus of the review is the subtle correlation between mechanical cues and apoptosis in tumor cells from a mechanobiology perspective. To begin, we focus on the intracellular force, examining the mechanical properties of the cell interior, and outlining the role that the cytoskeleton and intracellular organelle-mediated intracellular forces play in tumor cell apoptosis. This article also elucidates the mechanisms by which extracellular forces guide tumor cell mechanosensing, ultimately triggering the activation of the mechanotransduction pathway and impacting tumor cell apoptosis. Finally, a comprehensive examination of the present status of the design and development of anti-cancer materials targeting mechanotransduction is presented, emphasizing the underlying design principles. Furthermore, the article underscores the need to address several unresolved inquiries to enhance our comprehension of cancer therapeutics that target mechanotransduction.

Four Ounces Can Move a Thousand Pounds: The Enormous Value of Nanomaterials in Tumor Immunotherapy

The application of nanomaterials in healthcare has emerged as a promising strategy due to their unique structural diversity, surface properties, and compositional diversity. In particular, nanomaterials have found a significant role in improving drug delivery and inhibiting the growth and metastasis of tumor cells. Moreover, recent studies have highlighted their potential in modulating the tumor microenvironment (TME) and enhancing the activity of immune cells to improve tumor therapy efficacy. Various types of nanomaterials are currently utilized as drug carriers, immunosuppressants, immune activators, immunoassay reagents, and more for tumor immunotherapy. Necessarily, nanomaterials used for tumor immunotherapy can be grouped into two categories: organic and inorganic nanomaterials. Though both have shown the ability to achieve the purpose of tumor immunotherapy, their composition and structural properties result in differences in their mechanisms and modes of action. Organic nanomaterials can be further divided into organic polymers, cell membranes, nanoemulsion-modified, and hydrogel forms. At the same time, inorganic nanomaterials can be broadly classified as nonmetallic and metallic nanomaterials. The current work aims to explore the mechanisms of action of these different types of nanomaterials and their prospects for promoting tumor immunotherapy.

Aptamers: Features, Synthesis and Applications

Aptamers have become a topic of interest among the researchers and scientists since they not only possess all of the benefits of antibodies but also possess special qualities including heat stability, low cost, and limitless uses⋅ Here we give a review about the features, applications, and challenges of aptamers and also how they are beneficial over the antibodies for biomedical applications. Their unique features make aptamers a prominent tool in therapeutics, diagnostics, biosensors and targeted drug delivery. In conclusion, aptamers represent exciting materials for a variety of applications and can be modified to improve their properties and to extend their applications in biomedical field.

Gold nanostructure-mediated delivery of anticancer agents: Biomedical applications, reversing drug resistance, and stimuli-responsive nanocarriers

The application of nanoarchitectures in cancer therapy seems to be beneficial for the delivery of antitumor drugs. In recent years, attempts have been made to reverse drug resistance, one of the factors threatening the lives of cancer patients worldwide. Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) are metal nanostructures with a variety of advantageous properties, such as tunable size and shape, continuous release of chemicals, and simple surface modification. This review focuses on the application of GNPs for the delivery of chemotherapy agents in cancer therapy. Utilizing GNPs results in targeted delivery and increased intracellular accumulation. Besides, GNPs can provide a platform for the co-delivery of anticancer agents and genetic tools with chemotherapeutic compounds to exert a synergistic impact. Furthermore, GNPs can promote oxidative damage and apoptosis by triggering chemosensitivity. Due to their capacity for providing photothermal therapy, GNPs can enhance the cytotoxicity of chemotherapeutic agents against tumor cells. The pH-, redox-, and light-responsive GNPs are beneficial for drug release at the tumor site. For the selective targeting of cancer cells, surface modification of GNPs with ligands has been performed. In addition to improving cytotoxicity, GNPs can prevent the development of drug resistance in tumor cells by facilitating prolonged release and loading low concentrations of chemotherapeutics while maintaining their high antitumor activity. As described in this study, the clinical use of chemotherapeutic drug-loaded GNPs is contingent on enhancing their biocompatibility.

Codelivery of dihydroartemisinin and chlorin e6 by copolymer nanoparticles enables boosting photodynamic therapy of breast cancer with low-power irradiation

Given that chemotherapy as a stand-alone therapeutic strategy may not be sufficient to effectively treat cancer, there is increasing interest in combination of chemotherapy and alternative therapies. Photodynamic therapy has the advantages of high selectivity and low side effects, so the combination of photodynamic therapy and chemotherapy has become one of the most appealing strategies for tumor treatment. In this work, we constructed a nano drug codelivery system (PPDC) to realize the combined treatment of chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy through encapsulating chemotherapeutic drug dihydroartemisinin and photosensitizer chlorin e6 in PEG-PCL. The potentials, particle size and morphology of nanoparticles were characterized by dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy. We also investigated the reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and drug release ability. The antitumor effect in vitro was investigated by methylthiazolyldiphenyl-tetrazolium bromide assays and cell apoptosis experiments, and the potential cell death mechanisms were explored by ROS detection and Western blot analysis. The in vivo antitumor effect of PPDC was evaluated under the guidance of fluorescence imaging. Our work provides a potential antitumor treatment approach and expands the application of dihydroartemisinin for breast cancer therapy.

A dynamic DNA tetrahedron framework for active targeting

An active targeting strategy-enabled DNA tetrahedron delivery vehicle could facilitate stable drug encapsulation and stimuli-responsive on-demand release, building a universal platform for different drug delivery requirements. Owing to the excellent biocompatible nature, programmability and remarkable cell and tissue permeability, the tetrahedral DNA nanostructure (TDN) has proven its value in the delivery of various bioactive molecules. We previously described this as a static multifunctional complex in our earlier protocol. However, static structures and passive targeting behavior might introduce off-target effects under complicated biological conditions. Therefore, in this Protocol Extension, we present a major update of the TDN delivery vehicle enabling an active targeting strategy to be used for stimuli-sensitive conformation changes and on-site cargo release, which could avoid drawbacks, including complex and time-consuming fabrication processes and undetermined cell penetration ability of other DNA-based delivery vehicles. Upon exquisite design of TDN size based on cargo type, one-pot annealing is applied to fabricate the Tiamat-designed TDN exoskeleton. Then the design of the dynamic DNA apparatus can be based on the target and environmental stimuli, including DNA strand hybridization-based and pH-sensitive DNA apparatus, and careful titration of strand lengths and mismatches is achieved using polyacrylamide and agarose gel electrophoresis, or fluorophore modifications. Finally, cargo loading strategies are designed, including site and stand titration and cargo encapsulation verification. The dynamic structures show promising targetability and effectiveness in antitumor and anti-inflammatory treatment in vitro and in vivo. Assembly and characterization in the lab takes ~5 d, and the timing for the verification of biostability and biological applications depends on the uses.

Aptamers as Smart Ligands for Targeted Drug Delivery in Cancer Therapy

Undesirable side effects and multidrug tolerance are the main holdbacks to the treatment of cancer in conventional chemotherapy. Fortunately, targeted drug delivery can improve the enrichment of drugs at the target site and reduce toxicity to normal tissues and cells. A targeted drug delivery system is usually composed of a nanocarrier and a targeting component. The targeting component is called a "ligand". Aptamers have high target affinity and specificity, which are identified as attractive and promising ligands. Therefore, aptamers have potential application in the development of smart targeting systems. For instance, aptamers are able to efficiently recognize tumor markers such as nucleolin, mucin, and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Besides, aptamers can also identify glycoproteins on the surface of tumor cells. Thus, the aptamer-mediated targeted drug delivery system has received extensive attention in the application of cancer therapy. This article reviews the application of aptamers as smart ligands for targeted drug delivery in cancer therapy. Special interest is focused on aptamers as smart ligands, aptamer-conjugated nanocarriers, aptamer targeting strategy for tumor microenvironment (TME), and aptamers that are specified to crucial cancer biomarkers for targeted drug delivery.