Validation of modelling the radiation exposure due to solar particle events at aircraft altitudes

All for one, though not one for all: team players in normal tissue radiobiology

PURPOSE

As part of the special issue on 'Women in Science', this review offers a perspective on past and ongoing work in the field of normal (non-cancer) tissue radiation biology, highlighting the work of many of the leading contributors to this field of research. We discuss some of the hypotheses that have guided investigations, with a focus on some of the critical organs considered dose-limiting with respect to radiation therapy, and speculate on where the field needs to go in the future.

CONCLUSIONS

The scope of work that makes up normal tissue radiation biology has and continues to play a pivotal role in the radiation sciences, ensuring the most effective application of radiation in imaging and therapy, as well as contributing to radiation protection efforts. However, despite the proven historical value of preclinical findings, recent decades have seen clinical practice move ahead with altered fractionation scheduling based on empirical observations, with little to no (or even negative) supporting scientific data. Given our current appreciation of the complexity of normal tissue radiation responses and their temporal variability, with tissue- and/or organ-specific mechanisms that include intra-, inter- and extracellular messaging, as well as contributions from systemic compartments, such as the immune system, the need to maintain a positive therapeutic ratio has never been more urgent. Importantly, mitigation and treatment strategies, whether for the clinic, emergency use following accidental or deliberate releases, or reducing occupational risk, will likely require multi-targeted approaches that involve both local and systemic intervention. From our personal perspective as five 'Women in Science', we would like to acknowledge and applaud the role that many female scientists have played in this field. We stand on the shoulders of those who have gone before, some of whom are fellow contributors to this special issue.

The work programme of EURADOS on internal and external dosimetry

Since the early 1980s, the European Radiation Dosimetry Group (EURADOS) has been maintaining a network of institutions interested in the dosimetry of ionising radiation. As of 2017, this network includes more than 70 institutions (research centres, dosimetry services, university institutes, etc.), and the EURADOS database lists more than 500 scientists who contribute to the EURADOS mission, which is to promote research and technical development in dosimetry and its implementation into practice, and to contribute to harmonisation of dosimetry in Europe and its conformance with international practices. The EURADOS working programme is organised into eight working groups dealing with environmental, computational, internal, and retrospective dosimetry; dosimetry in medical imaging; dosimetry in radiotherapy; dosimetry in high-energy radiation fields; and harmonisation of individual monitoring. Results are published as freely available EURADOS reports and in the peer-reviewed scientific literature. Moreover, EURADOS organises winter schools and training courses on various aspects relevant for radiation dosimetry, and formulates the strategic research needs in dosimetry important for Europe. This paper gives an overview on the most important EURADOS activities. More details can be found at www.eurados.org .

Management of cosmic radiation exposure for aircraft crew in Japan

The International Commission on Radiological Protection has recommended that cosmic radiation exposure of crew in commercial jet aircraft be considered as occupational exposure. In Japan, the Radiation Council of the government has established a guideline that requests domestic airlines to voluntarily keep the effective dose of cosmic radiation for aircraft crew below 5 mSv y(-1). The guideline also gives some advice and policies regarding the method of cosmic radiation dosimetry, the necessity of explanation and education about this issue, a way to view and record dose data, and the necessity of medical examination for crew. The National Institute of Radiological Sciences helps the airlines to follow the guideline, particularly for the determination of aviation route doses by numerical simulation. The calculation is performed using an original, easy-to-use program package called 'JISCARD EX' coupled with a PHITS-based analytical model and a GEANT4-based particle tracing code. The new radiation weighting factors recommended in 2007 are employed for effective dose determination. The annual individual doses of aircraft crew were estimated using this program.

Overview of research on aircraft crew dosimetry during the last solar cycle

Cosmic radiation was discovered successfully in the beginning of the twentieth century by the Austrian Nobel Price winner Victor Hess. Radiation effects to humans are of major concern during human space missions and also due to the increasing aviation altitudes and flight time. ICRP recommendations lead to adaptations of the Basic Safety Standards by the European Council. Beginning in the 1990 s up to now, significant improvements and findings in aviation dosimetry and epidemiology were done word-wide. Five research projects on measurements and modelling cosmic radiation exposure were supported by European Research Framework Programmes. In-flight measurements with remarkable agreement (+/-25%) were carried out to validate calculation codes for routine dose assessment within +/-30% for galactic cosmic radiation. Measurements and improvements of modelling radiation exposure due to solar particle events (SPE) is still an objective for future research projects.

Modelling of radiation exposure at high altitudes during solar storms

A transport code analysis using Monte Carlo N-Particle eXtended code, MCNPX, has been used to propagate an extrapolated particle spectrum based on satellite measurements through the atmosphere to estimate radiation exposure during solar storms at high altitudes. Neutron monitor count rate data from stations around the world were used to benchmark the model calculations during a ground-level event (GLE). A comparison was made between the model predictions and actual flight measurements taken with various types of instruments used to measure the mixed radiation field during GLE 60. A computer code has been developed to implement the model for routine analysis.

Measurements of secondary neutrons from cosmic radiation with a Bonner sphere spectrometer at 79 degrees N

Air crew members and airline passengers are continuously exposed to cosmic radiation during their flights. Particles ejected by the sun during so-called solar particle events (SPEs) in periods of high solar activity can contribute to this exposure. In rare cases the dose from a single SPE might even exceed the annual dose limit of 1 mSv above which dose monitoring of air crews is legally required in Germany. Measurements performed by means of neutron monitors have already shown that the relative intensity of secondary neutrons from cosmic radiation is enhanced during an SPE, particularly at regions close to the magnetic poles of the Earth where shielding of the cosmic radiation by the geomagnetic field is low. Here we describe a Bonner sphere spectrometer installed at the Koldewey station at 79 degrees N, i.e. about 1,000 km from the geographic North pole, which is designed to provide first experimental data on the time-dependent energy spectrum of neutrons produced in the atmosphere during an SPE. This will be important to calculate doses from these neutrons to air crew members. The system is described in detail and first results are shown that were obtained during quiet periods of sun activity.

Health physics and aviation: solar cycle 23 (1996-2008)

We continue our description of the scientific and professional activities that were initiated by the classification of airline flight crewmembers as occupational radiation workers in 1994, specifically looking at the period between 1996 and 2008. During this period, radiation measurement programs were conducted on numerous commercial aircraft flights. Epidemiological studies have looked at the incidence of cancer in pilots and flight attendants, with mixed conclusions. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) released revised versions of its CARI software, the computer program designed to evaluate radiation exposures received on user-defined flight plans. Additional dose-evaluation programs have been made available by other entities. In May 2000, member states of the European Union (EU) adopted regulations that apply to the air carriers in all twenty-seven nations requiring education on health risks of in-flight radiation as well as dose assessment for all EU flight crewmembers. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) revised its classification scheme for space weather events including radiation-producing solar storms. In 2005, the FAA created a Solar Particle Alert system to warn aircraft of high radiation levels caused by significant events of this type. There is now an early-warning system for potentially harmful solar particle events. This new system depends on the earlier arrival time of relativistic electrons compared with the heavier particulate radiation.