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Xu B, Zhang Z, Yang H, Ding L, Dai W, Liu L, Du X, Fu X, Pei X. A novel perspective on di-hexyl phthalate (2-ethylhexyl)-induced reproductive toxicity in females: Lipopolysaccharide synergizes with mono-2-ethylhexyl ester to cause inflammatory apoptosis rather than autophagy in ovarian granulosa cells. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2024; 276:116319. [PMID: 38615642 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.116319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Revised: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024]
Abstract
Di-hexyl phthalate (2-ethylhexyl) (DEHP) has been confirmed to cause female reproductive toxicity in humans and model animals by affecting the survival of ovarian granulosa cells (GCs), but the interrelationships between DEHP's on autophagy, apoptosis, and inflammation in GCs are not clear. Our previous study demonstrated that DEHP exposure resulted in the disturbance of intestinal flora associated with serum LPS release, which in turn led to impaired ovarian function. LPS has also been shown to determine cell fate by modulating cellular autophagy, apoptosis, and inflammation. Therefore, this study investigated the role and link between LPS and autophagy, apoptosis, and inflammation of GCs in DEHP-induced ovarian injury. Here, we constructed an in vivo injury model by continuous gavage of 0-1500 mg/kg of DEHP in female mice for 30 days and an in vitro injury model by treatment of human ovarian granulosa cells (KGN) cells with mono-2- ethylhexyl ester (MEHP, an active metabolite of DEHP in vivo). In addition, the expression of relevant pathway molecules was detected by immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, qRT-PCR, and Western blotting after the addition of the autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine (3-MA), the apoptosis inhibitor Z-VAD- FMK and the NF-κB inhibitor BAY11-7082. The current study found that autophagy and apoptosis were significantly activated in GCs of DEHP-induced atretic follicles in vivo and found that MEHP-induced KGN cells autophagy and apoptosis were independent and potentially cytotoxic of each other in vitro. Further studies confirmed that DEHP exposure resulted in LPS release from the intestinal tract and entering the ovary, thereby participating in DEHP-induced inflammation of GCs. In addition, we found that exogenous LPS synergized with MEHP could activate the NF-κB signaling pathway to induce inflammation and apoptosis of GCs in a relatively prolonged exposure condition. Meanwhile, inhibition of inflammatory activation could rescue apoptosis and estrogen secretion function of GCs induced by MEHP combined with LPS. These results indicated that the increased LPS influenced by DEHP might cooperate with MEHP to induce inflammatory apoptosis of GCs, an important cause of ovarian injury in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Xu
- School of Basic Medical Science, Key Laboratory of Fertility Preservation and Maintenance of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Reproduction and Genetics of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China
| | - Zhen Zhang
- School of Basic Medical Science, Key Laboratory of Fertility Preservation and Maintenance of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Reproduction and Genetics of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China
| | - Hong Yang
- School of Basic Medical Science, Key Laboratory of Fertility Preservation and Maintenance of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Reproduction and Genetics of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China
| | - Liyang Ding
- School of Basic Medical Science, Key Laboratory of Fertility Preservation and Maintenance of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Reproduction and Genetics of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China
| | - Wenjie Dai
- School of Basic Medical Science, Key Laboratory of Fertility Preservation and Maintenance of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Reproduction and Genetics of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China
| | - Ling Liu
- School of Basic Medical Science, Key Laboratory of Fertility Preservation and Maintenance of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Reproduction and Genetics of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China
| | - Xing Du
- School of Basic Medical Science, Key Laboratory of Fertility Preservation and Maintenance of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Reproduction and Genetics of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China
| | - Xufeng Fu
- School of Basic Medical Science, Key Laboratory of Fertility Preservation and Maintenance of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Reproduction and Genetics of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China.
| | - Xiuying Pei
- School of Basic Medical Science, Key Laboratory of Fertility Preservation and Maintenance of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Reproduction and Genetics of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China.
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Wang J, Zhao C, Feng J, Sun P, Zhang Y, Han A, Zhang Y, Ma H. Advances in understanding the reproductive toxicity of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in women. Front Cell Dev Biol 2024; 12:1390247. [PMID: 38606320 PMCID: PMC11007058 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2024.1390247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Accepted: 03/20/2024] [Indexed: 04/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Recently, there has been a noticeable increase in disorders of the female reproductive system, accompanied by a rise in adverse pregnancy outcomes. This trend is increasingly being linked to environmental pollution, particularly through the lens of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs). These external agents disrupt natural processes of hormones, including synthesis, metabolism, secretion, transport, binding, as well as elimination. These disruptions can significantly impair human reproductive functions. A wealth of animal studies and epidemiological research indicates that exposure to toxic environmental factors can interfere with the endocrine system's normal functioning, resulting in negative reproductive outcomes. However, the mechanisms of these adverse effects are largely unknown. This work reviews the reproductive toxicity of five major environmental EDCs-Bisphenol A (BPA), Phthalates (PAEs), Triclocarban Triclosan and Disinfection Byproducts (DBPs)-to lay a foundational theoretical basis for further toxicological study of EDCs. Additionally, it aims to spark advancements in the prevention and treatment of female reproductive toxicity caused by these chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinguang Wang
- Reproductive Medicine Center of Weifang People’s Hospital, Weifang, China
| | - Chunwu Zhao
- Gastrointestinal Surgery Center of Weifang People’s Hospital, Weifang, China
| | - Jie Feng
- Gynecology and Obstetrics Department, Fangzi District People’s Hospital, Weifang, China
| | - Pingping Sun
- Reproductive Medicine Center of Weifang People’s Hospital, Weifang, China
| | - Yuhua Zhang
- Reproductive Medicine Center of Weifang People’s Hospital, Weifang, China
| | - Ailing Han
- Reproductive Medicine Center of Weifang People’s Hospital, Weifang, China
| | - Yuemin Zhang
- Reproductive Medicine Center of Weifang People’s Hospital, Weifang, China
| | - Huagang Ma
- Reproductive Medicine Center of Weifang People’s Hospital, Weifang, China
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Santacruz-Márquez R, Safar AM, Laws MJ, Meling DD, Liu Z, Kumar TR, Nowak RA, Raetzman LT, Flaws JA. The effects of short-term and long-term phthalate exposures on ovarian follicle growth dynamics and hormone levels in female mice†. Biol Reprod 2024; 110:198-210. [PMID: 37812459 PMCID: PMC10790346 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioad137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and diisononyl phthalate are widely used as plasticizers in polyvinyl chloride products. Short-term exposures to phthalates affect hormone levels, ovarian follicle populations, and ovarian gene expression. However, limited data exist regarding the effects of long-term exposure to phthalates on reproductive functions. Thus, this study tested the hypothesis that short-term and long-term exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate or diisononyl phthalate disrupts follicle dynamics, ovarian and pituitary gene expression, and hormone levels in female mice. Adult CD-1 female mice were exposed to vehicle, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, or diisononyl phthalate (0.15 ppm, 1.5 ppm, or 1500 ppm) via the chow for 1 or 6 months. Short-term exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (0.15 ppm) and diisononyl phthalate (1.5 ppm) decreased serum follicle-stimulating hormone levels compared to control. Long-term exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and diisononyl phthalate (1500 ppm) increased the percentage of primordial follicles and decreased the percentages of preantral and antral follicles compared to control. Both phthalates increased follicle-stimulating hormone levels (di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate at 1500 ppm; diisononyl phthalate at 1.5 ppm) and decreased luteinizing hormone levels (di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate at 0.15 and 1.5 ppm; diisononyl phthalate at 1.5 ppm and 1500 ppm) compared to control. Furthermore, both phthalates altered the expression of pituitary gonadotropin subunit genes (Cga, Fshb, and Lhb) and a transcription factor (Nr5a1) that regulates gonadotropin synthesis. These data indicate that long-term exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and diisononyl phthalate alters follicle growth dynamics in the ovary and the expression of gonadotropin subunit genes in the pituitary and consequently luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramsés Santacruz-Márquez
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Adira M Safar
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Mary J Laws
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Daryl D Meling
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Zhenghui Liu
- Division of Reproductive Sciences, Division of Reproductive Endocrinology & Infertility, Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - T Rajendra Kumar
- Division of Reproductive Sciences, Division of Reproductive Endocrinology & Infertility, Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Romana A Nowak
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Lori T Raetzman
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Jodi A Flaws
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
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Yang P, Xie J, Huang S, Li X, Deng L, Zhang J, Chen L, Wu N, Huang G, Zhou C, Xiao L, Shen X. "Cocktail" of environmental chemicals and early reproductive outcomes of IVF: The insight from paternal and maternal exposure. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2023; 348:119462. [PMID: 37925986 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2023] [Revised: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 10/21/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Humans are exposed to various chemicals, including organophosphate esters (OPEs), phthalates (PAEs), and phenols. The effects on early reproductive outcomes of in vitro fertilization (IVF) remain unclear. METHODS We recruited 192 women and 157 men who underwent IVF treatment. A total of forty-nine urinary chemicals were detected, including six OPEs, fifteen PAEs, six parabens, two chlorophenols, nine bisphenols, five benzophenones, and six synthetic phenolic antioxidants. We examined the individual and joint effects of parental chemical exposure on early reproductive outcomes. RESULTS We found that certain chemicals were associated with early reproductive outcomes in Poisson regression models. For example, urinary diphenyl phosphate was negatively associated with high-quality embryos in both female (β: -0.12, 95%CI: -0.17, -0.07) and male partners (β: -0.09, 95%CI: -0.15, -0.03). A negative association was found between mixed chemicals and high-quality embryos in Bayesian kernel machine regression, weighted quantile sum regression (β: -0.34, 95%CI: -0.60, -0.07), and quantile-based g-computation model (β: -0.69, 95%CI: -1.34, -0.05) among female partners. Paternal mixture exposure was not associated with early reproductive outcomes. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicated that increased exposure to environmental chemicals was associated with adverse early reproductive outcomes of IVF, especially female partners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pan Yang
- Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China; China Greater Bay Area Research Center of Environmental Health, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China; Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Jinying Xie
- Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China; China Greater Bay Area Research Center of Environmental Health, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Songyi Huang
- Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China; China Greater Bay Area Research Center of Environmental Health, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Xiaojie Li
- Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China; China Greater Bay Area Research Center of Environmental Health, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Langjing Deng
- Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China; China Greater Bay Area Research Center of Environmental Health, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Jinglei Zhang
- Reproductive Medicine Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China
| | - Lin Chen
- Reproductive Medicine Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China
| | - Nanxin Wu
- Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China; China Greater Bay Area Research Center of Environmental Health, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Guangtong Huang
- School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Canquan Zhou
- Reproductive Medicine Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China.
| | - Li Xiao
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510630, China.
| | - Xiaoting Shen
- Reproductive Medicine Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China.
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Shukla R, Arshee MR, Laws MJ, Flaws JA, Bagchi MK, Wagoner Johnson AJ, Bagchi IC. Chronic exposure of mice to phthalates enhances TGF beta signaling and promotes uterine fibrosis. Reprod Toxicol 2023; 122:108491. [PMID: 37863342 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2023.108491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 10/04/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/22/2023]
Abstract
Phthalates are synthetic chemicals widely used as plasticizers and stabilizers in various consumer products. Because of the extensive production and use of phthalates, humans are exposed to these chemicals daily. While most studies focus on a single phthalate, humans are exposed to a mixture of phthalates on a regular basis. The impact of continuous exposure to phthalate mixture on uterus is largely unknown. Thus, we conducted studies in which adult female mice were exposed for 6 months to 0.15 ppm and 1.5 ppm of a mixture of phthalates via chow ad libitum. Our studies revealed that consumption of phthalate mixture at 0.15 ppm and 1.5 ppm for 6 months led to a significant increase in the thickness of the myometrial layer compared to control. Further investigation employing RNA-sequencing revealed an elevated transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) signaling in the uteri of mice fed with phthalate mixture. TGF-β signaling is associated with the development of fibrosis, a consequence of excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix components, such as collagen fibers in a tissue. Consistent with this observation, we found a higher incidence of collagen deposition in uteri of mice exposed to phthalate mixture compared to unexposed controls. Second Harmonic Generation (SHG) imaging showed disorganized collagen fibers and nanoindentation indicated a local increase in uterine stiffness upon exposure to phthalate mixture. Collectively, our results demonstrate that chronic exposure to phthalate mixture can have adverse effects on uterine homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ritwik Shukla
- Departments of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Mahmuda R Arshee
- Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Mary J Laws
- Departments of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Jodi A Flaws
- Departments of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Carle R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Milan K Bagchi
- Molecular & Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Carle R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Carle Illinois College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Amy J Wagoner Johnson
- Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Carle R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Carle Illinois College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Indrani C Bagchi
- Departments of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Carle R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Carle Illinois College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA.
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Safar AM, Santacruz-Márquez R, Laws MJ, Meling DD, Liu Z, Kumar TR, Nowak RA, Raetzman LT, Flaws JA. Dietary exposure to an environmentally relevant phthalate mixture alters follicle dynamics, hormone levels, ovarian gene expression, and pituitary gene expression in female mice. Reprod Toxicol 2023; 122:108489. [PMID: 37839492 PMCID: PMC10873030 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2023.108489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Revised: 09/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
Phthalates are chemicals ubiquitously used in industry. Individual phthalates have been found to adversely affect female reproduction; however, humans are exposed to a mixture of phthalates daily, primarily through ingestion. Previous studies show that exposure to an environmentally relevant mixture of phthalates (Mix) can affect female reproduction. Little research, however, has been conducted on the effects of short-term (1 month) and long-term (6 months) exposure to Mix on ovarian functions. Thus, this study tested the hypothesis that short-term and long-term exposure to Mix alters ovarian folliculogenesis, serum hormone concentrations, pituitary gene expression, and ovarian expression of genes involved in steroidogenesis, apoptosis, cell cycle regulation, and oxidative stress. Adult CD-1 female mice were exposed to vehicle control (corn oil) or Mix (0.15-1500 ppm) in the chow for 1 or 6 months. Exposure to Mix for 1 month increased the number of atretic follicles (0.15 ppm), altered ovarian gene expression (0.15 ppm, 1500 ppm), and decreased serum testosterone (1.5 ppm) compared to control. Exposure to Mix for 6 months increased serum follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) (0.15 ppm), decreased serum luteinizing hormone (LH) (0.15 ppm, 1.5 ppm, and 1500 ppm), decreased serum estradiol (1500 ppm), altered pituitary gene expression (1500 ppm), increased the number (1500 ppm) and percentage (1.5 ppm and 1500 ppm) of primordial follicles, and decreased the percentage of preantral (1500 ppm) and antral (1.5 ppm and 1500 ppm) follicles compared to control. These data indicate that exposure to Mix can alter folliculogenesis, steroidogenesis, and gene expression in female mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adira M Safar
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | | | - Mary J Laws
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Daryl D Meling
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Zhenghui Liu
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Division of Reproductive Sciences, Division of Reproductive Endocrinology & Infertility, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - T Rajendra Kumar
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Division of Reproductive Sciences, Division of Reproductive Endocrinology & Infertility, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Romana A Nowak
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Lori T Raetzman
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Jodi A Flaws
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA.
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7
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Graceli JB, da Costa CS, Laws MJ, Deviney ARK, Meling D, Flaws JA. Chronic exposure to a mixture of phthalates shifts the white and brown adipose tissue phenotypes in female mice. Toxicol Sci 2023; 193:204-218. [PMID: 37021957 PMCID: PMC10230284 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfad032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Phthalates are endocrine-disrupting chemicals used in consumer products. Although phthalates are obesogens and affect metabolic function, it is unknown if chronic exposure for 6 months to a phthalate mixture alters adipose tissue phenotype in female mice. After vehicle or mixture exposure, white adipose tissue and brown adipose tissue (WAT and BAT) were analyzed for expression of adipogenesis, proliferation, angiogenesis, apoptosis, oxidative stress, inflammation, and collagen deposition markers. The mixture altered WAT morphology, leading to an increase in hyperplasia, blood vessel number, and expression of BAT markers (Adipoq and Fgf2) in WAT. The mixture increased the expression of the inflammatory markers, Il1β, Ccl2, and Ccl5, in WAT. The mixture also increased expression of the proapoptotic (Bax and Bcl2) and antiapoptotic (Bcl2l10) factors in WAT. The mixture increased expression of the antioxidant Gpx1 in WAT. The mixture changed BAT morphology by increasing adipocyte diameter, whitening area, and blood vessel number and decreased expression of the thermogenic markers Ucp1, Pgargc1a, and Adrb3. Furthermore, the mixture increased the expression of adipogenic markers Plin1 and Cebpa, increased mast cell number, and increased Il1β expression in BAT. The mixture also increased expression of the antioxidant markers Gpx and Nrf2 and the apoptotic marker Casp2 in BAT. Collectively, these data indicate that chronic exposure to a phthalate mixture alters WAT and BAT lipid metabolism phenotypes in female mice, leading to an apparent shift in their normal morphology. Following long-term exposure to a phthalate mixture, WAT presented BAT-like features and BAT presented WAT-like features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jones B Graceli
- Department of Morphology, Federal University of Espirito Santo, Vitoria, Brazil
| | - Charles S da Costa
- Department of Morphology, Federal University of Espirito Santo, Vitoria, Brazil
| | - Mary J Laws
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Ashley R K Deviney
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Daryl Meling
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Jodi A Flaws
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
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