Life-threatening scrub typhus with hemophagocytosis and acute respiratory distress syndrome in an infant

Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) in Patients with Tick-Borne Illness: A Scoping Review of 98 Cases

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) secondary to tick-borne infections is a rare but potentially life-threatening syndrome. We performed a scoping review according to PRISMA guidelines to systematically analyze the existing literature on the topic. A total of 98 patients were included, with a mean age of 43.7 years, of which 64% were men. Most cases, 31%, were reported from the USA. Immunosuppression was present in 21.4%, with the most common cause being previous solid organ transplantation. Constitutional symptoms were the most common, observed in 83.7% of the patients, while fever was reported in 70.4% of cases. Sepsis was present in 27.6%. The most common laboratory abnormalities in this cohort were thrombocytopenia in 81.6% of patients, while anemia, leukopenia, and leukocytosis were observed in 75.5%, 55.1%, and 10.2%, respectively. Liver enzyme elevation was noted in 63.3% of cases. The H-score was analyzed in 64 patients, with the mean value being 209, and bone marrow analysis was performed in 61.2% of patients. Ehrlichia spp. was the main isolated agent associated with HLH in 45.9%, followed by Rickettsia spp. in 14.3% and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in 12.2%. Notably, no patient with Powassan virus infection or Lyme borreliosis developed HLH. The most common complications were acute kidney injury (AKI) in 35.7% of patients, shock with multiple organ dysfunction in 22.5%, encephalopathy/seizure in 20.4%, respiratory failure in 16.3%, and cardiac complications in 7.1% of patients. Treatment included antibiotic therapy alone in 43.9%, while 5.1% of patients were treated with immunosuppressants alone. Treatment with both antibiotics and immunosuppressants was used in 51% of patients. Appropriate empiric antibiotics were used in 62.2%. In 43.9% of cases of HLH due to tick-borne disease, patients received only antimicrobial therapy, and 88.4% of those recovered completely without the need for immunosuppressive therapy. The mortality rate in our review was 16.3%, and patients who received inappropriate or delayed empiric therapy had a worse outcome. Hence, we suggest empiric antibiotic treatment in patients who are suspected of having HLH due to tick-borne disease or in whom diagnostic uncertainty persists due to diagnostic delay in order to minimize mortality.

Scrub Typhus-Associated Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis: Not a Rare Entity in Pediatric Age Group

BACKGROUND

Our goal was to study the demographic, clinical and laboratory profile and outcome of scrub typhus-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) in the pediatric age group.

METHODS

We conducted a prospective observational study in a tertiary care teaching hospital over a period of 1 year. Children in the age group of 1 month to 12 years with IgM ELISA positive for scrub typhus were included in the study. HLH was diagnosed using HLH-2004 criteria. Demographic, clinical and laboratory profile, treatment and outcome of HLH patients were noted and also compared with non-HLH scrub typhus patients.

RESULTS

Among 58 children with scrub typhus infection, 18 had HLH. The mean age of patients with HLH was 35.3 ± 44.8 months and 61% were male. Anemia, thrombocytopenia and hyperferritinemia were seen in all the patients. Hypertriglyceridemia, hypofibrinogenemia and coagulopathy were noted in 78%, 56% and 44%, respectively. All the patients were treated with intravenous doxycycline for an average duration of 9.5 days. Intravenous immunoglobulin and methylprednisolone were given in 33% and 22% cases, respectively. Complications like acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) (p = 0.001) and MODS (p = 0.004) were significantly high in the HLH group. Younger age (<3 years), fever > 7 days, presence of convulsion, ARDS and MODS were the clinical predictors of scrub typhus-associated HLH.

CONCLUSION

HLH in scrub typhus infected children is being increasingly recognized. Younger age, prolonged fever, presence of convulsion, ARDS and MODS should alert clinicians of the risk of HLH. Treating the primary cause usually cures the disease and immunomodulator therapy need not be routinely administered.

Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis: An Unusual Presentation of Scrub Typhus

Scrub typhus is an important etiological cause for acute undifferentiated febrile illness in the Asia-Pacific region, including Sri Lanka. It is a mite-borne disease caused by Orientia tsutsugamushi. Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a rapidly progressive and potentially life-threatening hyperinflammatory syndrome rarely associated with scrub typhus. We herein describe a rare case of scrub typhus complicated by hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in a 40-year-old previously healthy woman who presented with a history of an acute febrile illness. Following the observation of acute deterioration of hematological parameters despite the nature of the febrile illness, the rare association of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis was considered, and this disease association was confirmed by fulfilling six out of eight of the diagnostic criteria of haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. The patient made an uneventful recovery following treatment for the precipitating illness and with supportive care.

Japanese Spotted Fever with Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis

Japanese spotted fever (JSF) is an uncommon but potentially fatal infection transmitted by tick bites. We herein report a fulminant case of JSF infection that occurred in an immunocompetent adult that was complicated by disseminated intravascular coagulation and hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH). We discuss the difficulty in making the diagnosis and identifying the complication of HLH in our patient. HLH is a rare complication of rickettsiosis, and this is the first reported case in English of JSF complicated by HLH in an immunocompetent adult. Secondary HLH caused by rickettsiosis requires a different treatment from primary HLH. Rickettsiosis must therefore be considered in patients with HLH.

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis with neurological manifestations in an infant with scrub typhus: a rare fatal occurrence

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a syndrome of unchecked activation of the immune system leading to phagocytosis of blood cells and proliferation of histiocytes in solid organs. HLH can be primary or secondary to infective, autoimmune and malignant conditions. Scrub typhus is an infective illness caused by Orientia tsutsugamushi, transmitted by mite. The illness ranges from mild fever with rash to severe multisystem illness. Scrub typhus has rarely been associated with secondary HLH. We report an infant with scrub typhus who progressed to develop HLH with central nervous system involvement with fatal outcome.

Scrub typhus (Tsutsugamushi disease) in a patient presenting with hemophagocytic syndrome

Scrub typhus is a mite-borne infectious disease caused by Orientia tsutsugamushi, which is found mainly in East and Southeast Asia and in Australia. The disease presents with a variety of non-specific symptoms, including fever, headache, cough, myalgia, and rash. Delay in starting appropriate antimicrobial therapy may lead to serious complications and even death. We report the case of an 84-year-old Japanese patient with scrub typhus who developed hemophagocytic syndrome (HPS) and was successfully treated with minocycline in addition to corticosteroids. A pathognomonic skin ulcer on her right buttock, which was initially covered with black eschar, prompted us to consider the possibility of scrub typhus. Blood polymerase chain reaction and antibody assays confirmed the diagnosis. Scrub typhus must be considered as one of the underlying diseases that may cause HPS in patients living in the Asia-Pacific region and in those who have recently returned from endemic areas.

Clinical characteristics and effective treatments of scrub typhus-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in children

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is an uncommon and life-threatening disorder that may rarely complicate the clinical course of Orientia tsutsugamushi disease (scrub typhus). Here, we describe the clinical features, laboratory parameters, management, and outcome of 16 children with scrub typhus-associated HLH. All patients satisfied the HLH-2004 diagnostic criteria. All patients had fever of unknown origin and multisystem damage. Raised hepatic transaminases and abnormalities in routine blood test were observed in all children. Imaging tests showed abnormalities in 10 cases. Six patients were treated with intravenous azithromycin for 5 days, and 10 with intravenous chloramphenicol for 7–10 days because of non-response to 3-day azithromycin treatment. Five patients were treated with intravenous albumin and 3 with intravenous immunoglobulin. Two patients with severe symptoms (shortness of breath, cyanosis) were treated with dexamethasone (0.3 mg/kg/d). Fifteen patients recovered completely after 8–22 days of treatment. One patient died. The occurrence of severe complications draws attention to the need for early diagnosis and effective treatment. Anti-rickettsial antibiotic treatment (azithromycin or chloramphenicol) without the need for chemotherapy may be beneficial in such cases, instead of treatment according to the 2004 HLH protocol.

Clinical manifestations of scrub typhus

The mite-borne rickettsial zoonosis scrub typhus is widely prevalent in parts of Southeast and Far East Asia, and northern Australia. The disease is an acute febrile illness, associated with rash and often an eschar, which responds dramatically to treatment with antibiotics. In some cases it results in a serious illness leading to multiple organ involvement and death. The disease manifestations are thought to result from a systemic vasculitis, caused by both direct effects of the organisms as well as an exaggerated immune response, although little is understood about its pathogenesis. A wide spectrum of clinical manifestations, affecting nearly every organ system, have been described with scrub typhus. Some of these manifestations are serious and life threatening. In this systematic review, we summarise the typical and atypical manifestations of scrub typhus reported in the literature. Awareness of these unusual manifestations will hopefully guide clinicians towards diagnosing the condition early, and initiating early appropriate antibiotics and other supportive measures.

Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis Associated with Scrub Typhus: Systematic Review and Comparison between Pediatric and Adult Cases

Background: Scrub typhus is a mite-borne bacterial infection caused by Orientia tsutsugamushi. Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a potential severe complication. Most reported cases of HLH associated with scrub typhus were single cases or case series with a small sample sizes. Thus, no clear consensus exists on clinical manifestations and differences between pediatric and adult cases of this condition. Methods: a systematic search of English and Japanese articles from PubMed, PubMed Central, and Directory of Open Access Journals databases was performed from 3 December 2016 to 28 December 2017. The primary outcome was mortality in patients with HLH associated with scrub typhus; secondary outcomes were differences in clinical symptoms, laboratory findings, and treatment between pediatric and adult patients with HLH associated with scrub typhus. Results: thirty cases of HLH associated with scrub typhus were identified (age range: 2 months to 75 years; median age: 21.5 years, male:female ratio, 1:1). Eschar was frequently observed in the pediatric group (p = 0.017), whereas acute kidney injury was more prevalent in the adult group (p = 0.010). Two patients died of intracranial hemorrhage complicated with multiple organ failure; overall mortality rate was 6.7%. Conclusions: HLH associated with scrub typhus could be cured with remarkable improvement using single antibiotic therapy in approximately half the cases, with the mortality rate being relatively lower than that of HLH associated with other secondary causes.

A Review of Scrub Typhus (Orientia tsutsugamushi and Related Organisms): Then, Now, and Tomorrow

Scrub typhus and the rickettsial diseases represent some of the oldest recognized vector-transmitted diseases, fraught with a rich historical aspect, particularly as applied to military/wartime situations. The vectors of Orientia tsutsugamushi were once thought to be confined to an area designated as the Tsutsugamushi Triangle. However, recent reports of scrub typhus caused by Orientia species other than O. tsutsugamushi well beyond the limits of the Tsutsugamushi Triangle have triggered concerns about the worldwide presence of scrub typhus. It is not known whether the vectors of O. tsutsugamushi will be the same for the new Orientia species, and this should be a consideration during outbreak/surveillance investigations. Additionally, concerns surrounding the antibiotic resistance of O. tsutsugamushi have led to considerations for the amendment of treatment protocols, and the need for enhanced public health awareness in both the civilian and medical professional communities. In this review, we discuss the history, outbreaks, antibiotic resistance, and burgeoning genomic advances associated with one of the world's oldest recognized vector-borne pathogens, O. tsutsugamushi.

Scrub typhus associated with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis: A report of six pediatric patients

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a life-threatening immune disorder that may be inherited or secondary to infection, malignancy or rheumatological disease. The aim of the present study was to highlight the clinical features of scrub typhus-associated HLH in children. A retrospective study was performed on 6 pediatric patients with scrub typhus-associated HLH. For each patient, medical records were reviewed and analyzed, and demographic, clinical and laboratory data and outcomes were collected. The duration of fever prior to admission ranged between 4 and 12 days. All patients exhibited persistent or intermittent fever, eschar, hepatosplenomegaly and lymphadenopathy at the time of diagnosis. Five patients experienced acute respiratory distress syndrome and disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) during hospitalization. Thrombocytopenia was detected in all patients with cytopenia involving two or three cell types, simultaneously. Coagulopathy with prolonged prothrombin time and/or activated partial thromboplastin time were noted in all patients. Markedly elevated serum ferritin levels (>1,500 µg/ml) were identified in all patients. Elevated lactate dehydrogenase (>1,000 U/l) was detected in 4 (66.7%) patients and elevated alanine aminotransferase was exhibited by 5 (83/3%) patients. Lung infiltrates and consolidation were the most common imaging findings. Only 1 patient succumbed, with DIC and multi-organ failure. Of the survivors, 1 patient was lost to follow-up, and the remaining patients are in remission with excellent general health, to date. In conclusion, HLH should be considered in severe pediatric cases of scrub typhus. Upon the early recognition of this syndrome, prompt and supportive treatment in the pediatric intensive care unit are vital.

Successful Treatment of Scrub Typhus-Associated Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis With Chloramphenicol: Report of 3 Pediatric Cases and Literature Review

Scrub typhus is caused by Orientia tsutsugamushi. Any delay in diagnosis can result in delayed treatment and severe complications, including secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, which is rare but potentially fatal.In this paper, the authors present 3 cases of secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis associated with scrub typhus, successfully treated with chloramphenicol without additional antineoplastic therapy. All patients cured and achieved complete resolution.This report highlights the effectiveness of chloramphenicol without the need for chemotherapy in the treatment of scrub typhus-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in a pediatric population under the age of 8 years.

Clinical profile of scrub typhus in children and its association with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis

OBJECTIVE

To study the clinical profile of children with scrub typhus and its association with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis.

METHODS

Children presenting with unexplained fever and multi-systemic involvement between May to December 2011 were tested for scrub typhus using IgM ELISA kits. Occurrence of Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in IgM positive cases of scrub typhus was studied.

RESULTS

Of the 35 children with unexplained fever and multi-systemic involvement, 15 children (9 boys) tested positive for scrub typhus. Thrombocytopenia, hypoalbuminemia and raised hepatic transaminases were observed in all children. Out of seven children evaluated for hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. 3 met the criteria for hemophagocytosis. Two children (one with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis) died.

CONCLUSIONS

Scrub typhus is a common cause of unexplained fever in children in northern India. Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis can occasionally complicate scrub typhus in children.

Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis: an Unusual Complication of Orientia tsutsugamushi Disease (Scrub Typhus)

Background

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is an uncommon, potentially fatal, hyperinflammatory syndrome that may rarely complicate the clinical course of Orientia tsutsugamushi disease (scrub typhus).

Methods

Here we describe the clinicopathological features, laboratory parameters, management, and outcome of three adult patients (1 female, 2 males) with scrub typhus associated HLH from a tertiary center. A brief and concise review of international literature on the topic was also added.

Results

All three patients satisfied the HLH-2004 diagnostic criteria; one had multi-organ dysfunction with very high ferritin level (>30,000 ng/ml), and all had a dramatic recovery following doxycyclin therapy. Literature review from January 1990 to March 2014 revealed that scrub typhus associated HLH were reported in 21 patients, mostly from the scrub endemic countries of the world. These included 11 females and 10 males with a mean age of 35 years (range; 8 months to 81 years). Fifteen of 17 patients (where data were available) had a favorable outcome following early serological diagnosis and initiation of definitive antibiotic therapy with (N=6) or without (N=9) immunosuppressive/immunomodulator therapy. Mutation analysis for primary HLH was performed in one patient only, and HLH-2004 protocol was used in two patients.

Conclusion

We suggest that HLH should be considered in severe cases of scrub typhus especially if associated with cytopenia (s), liver dysfunction, and coagulation abnormalities. Further studies are required to understand whether an immunosuppressive and/or immunomodulator therapy could be beneficial in those patients who remain unresponsive to definitive antibiotic therapy.

A case report of scrub typhus-associated hemophagocytic syndrome and a review of literature

A 34-year-old woman presented with septic shock, disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), and multiorgan dysfunction with a 1-week history of fever, abdominal pain in the right upper quadrant, and dull pain in the right flank. Physical and laboratory data showed cytopenia (thrombocytopenia and anemia), splenomegaly, hyperferritinemia, hypofibrinogenemia, and an elevated level of interleukin-2 receptor (soluble CD25). Bone marrow examinations disclosed hypercellular marrow with increased infiltration of histiocytes with hemophagocytosis. This diagnosis was confirmed by positive Weil-Felix test results (Proteus mirabilis OX-K titer, 1:80), the presence of IgG and IgM antibodies, and positive PCR results for Orientia tsutsugamushi. The patient developed a severe intracranial hemorrhage 3 days after admission and expired due to systemic inflammatory response syndrome with DIC and multiorgan failure on the 13th day of hospitalization. Scrub typhus with hemophagocytic syndrome can be complicated by DIC and multiorgan failure. Patients with scrub typhus usually have an excellent response to treatment; therefore, early diagnosis and prompt administration of antimicrobial therapy may prevent the development of serious complications.