The History of Cacao and Its Diseases in the Americas

Exploring the Therapeutic Potential of Theobroma cacao L.: Insights from In Vitro, In Vivo, and Nanoparticle Studies on Anti-Inflammatory and Anticancer Effects

Theobroma cacao L., commonly known as cocoa, has been an integral part of human culture and diet for thousands of years. However, recent scientific research has highlighted its potential therapeutic properties, particularly in the treatment of cancer and inflammatory diseases. This comprehensive review analyzes the anti-inflammatory and anticancer effects of Theobroma cacao extracts combined with nanoparticles using in vitro and in vivo studies. Its diverse biological activity can be attributed to its rich phytochemical profile, including polyphenols, flavonoids, and alkaloids. In vitro studies have found that cocoa extracts, alone or in combination with nanoparticles, inhibit cancer cell proliferation, induce apoptosis and modulate key signaling pathways in various cancer cell lines. The extracts have also been found to reduce tumor growth and enhance the efficacy of conventional chemotherapeutic agents, potentially reducing their side effects, in vivo. Its anti-inflammatory properties are based on its ability to modulate inflammatory mediators, inhibit NF-κB signaling, and regulate macrophage polarization. These effects have been observed in both cellular and animal models of inflammation. This review opens up new possibilities for future research and therapeutic applications, highlighting the potential of Theobroma cacao as a valuable complementary approach in the treatment and prevention of cancer and inflammatory diseases.

Adsorption dynamics of Cd2+(aq) on microwave-synthetized pristine biochar from cocoa pod husk: Green, experimental, and DFT approaches

Biochar obtained via microwave-assisted pyrolysis (MAP) at 720 W and 15 min from cocoa pod husk (CPH) is an efficient adsorbent of Cd2+(aq). Biochar of residual biomass of CPH (BCCPH) possesses favorable physicochemical and morphological properties, featuring a modest surface area yet a suitable porous structure. Adsorption, predominantly governed by physisorption, is influenced by the oxygen-containing active sites (-COOR, -C(R)O, and -CH2OR; R = H, alkyl). CdCO3 formation occurs during adsorption. Experimental data were well-fitted into various kinetic models for a broad understanding of the sorption process. Langmuir model indicates a maximum adsorption capacity of 14.694 mg/g. The thermodynamic study confirms the spontaneous and endothermic sorption. Studies at the molecular level have revealed that the Cd2+ ion tends to bind to surface aromatic carbon atoms. This sustainable approach produces BCCPH via MAP as a solution for waste transformation into water-cleaning materials.

Genome-wide identification, characterization, and expression analysis of the small auxin-up RNA gene family during zygotic and somatic embryo maturation of the cacao tree (Theobroma cacao)

Small auxin-up RNA (SAUR) proteins were known as a large family that supposedly participated in various biological processes in higher plant species. However, the SAUR family has been still not explored in cacao (Theobroma cacao L.), one of the most important industrial trees. The present work, as an in silico study, revealed comprehensive aspects of the structure, phylogeny, and expression of TcSAUR gene family in cacao. A total of 90 members of the TcSAUR gene family have been identified and annotated in the cacao genome. According to the physic-chemical features analysis, all TcSAUR proteins exhibited slightly similar characteristics. Phylogenetic analysis showed that these TcSAUR proteins could be categorized into seven distinct groups, with 10 sub-groups. Our results suggested that tandemly duplication events, segmental duplication events, and whole genome duplication events might be important in the growth of the TcSAUR gene family in cacao. By re-analyzing the available transcriptome databases, we found that a number of TcSAUR genes were exclusively expressed during the zygotic embryogenesis and somatic embryogenesis. Taken together, our study will be valuable to further functional characterizations of candidate TcSAUR genes for the genetic engineering of cacao.

Moniliophthora perniciosa in Angola, Africa-the First Record in the Eastern Hemisphere

Moniliophthora perniciosa causes a destructive disease known as witches' broom disease of cacao (WBDC). WBDC has been responsible for major reductions in production or even total abandonment of cacao plantations in most countries that it has invaded. To date, however, the disease is known only from the cacao-producing regions of South America and a few Central American and Caribbean countries. It is not known from the Eastern Hemisphere and remains a major threat should it invade West Africa or Southeast Asia, where the majority of the world's chocolate production now occurs. In 2019, a pink pigmented mushroom was found fruiting from unidentified twigs in the Serra Vamba of Angola. The specimen was identified as M. perniciosa based on morphological and molecular analyses. Although Angola is not a major cacao-producing country, the presence of the fungus in the Eastern Hemisphere could be of global concern and may indicate the need for quarantine in Angola and vigilance in neighboring countries.

Diversity and functional assessment of indigenous culturable bacteria inhabiting fine-flavor cacao rhizosphere: Uncovering antagonistic potential against Moniliophthora roreri

The Peruvian Amazonian native cacao faces ongoing challenges that significantly undermine its productivity. Among them, frosty pod rot disease and cadmium accumulation result in losses that need for effective and environmentally safe strategies, such as those based on bacteria. To explore the biological resources in the cacao soil, a descriptive study was conducted to assess the diversity of culturable bacteria across three production districts in the Amazonas region: La Peca, Imaza, and Cajaruro. The study also focused on the functional properties of these bacteria, particularly those related to the major issues limiting cacao cultivation. For this purpose, 90 native bacterial isolates were obtained from the cacao rhizosphere. According to diversity analysis, the community was composed of 19 bacterial genera, with a dominance of the Bacillaceae family and variable distribution among the districts. This variability was statistically supported by the PCoA plots and is related to the pH of the soil environment. The functional assessment revealed that 56.8% of the isolates showed an antagonism index greater than 75% after 7 days of confrontation. After 15 days of confrontation with Moniliophthora roreri, 68.2% of the bacterial population demonstrated this attribute. This capability was primarily exhibited by Bacillus strains. On the other hand, only 4.5% were capable of removing cadmium, highlighting the biocontrol potential of the bacterial community. In addition, some isolates produced siderophores (13.63%), solubilized phosphate (20.45%), and solubilized zinc (4.5%). Interestingly, these traits showed an uneven distribution, which correlated with the divergence found by the beta diversity. Our results revealed a diverse bacterial community inhabiting the Amazonian cacao rhizosphere, showcasing crucial functional properties related to the biocontrol of M. roreri. The information generated serves as a significant resource for the development of further biotechnological tools that can be applied to native Amazonian cacao.

The surface of leaves and fruits of Peruvian cacao is home for several Hannaella yeast species, including the new species Hannaella theobromatis sp. nov

As part of a long-term study aiming to isolate and identify yeast species that inhabit the surface of leaves and fruits of native fine-aroma cacao in the department of Amazonas, Peru, we obtained multiple isolates of Hannaella species. Yeasts of the genus Hannaella are common inhabitants of the phyllosphere of natural and crop plants. On the basis of morphological, and physiological characteristics, and sequence analysis of the D1/D2 domains of the large subunit rRNA gene (LSU) and the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS), we identified five species of Hannaella from the phyllosphere of Peruvian cacao. Four have been previously described: H. phyllophila (isolates KLG-073, KLG-091), H. pagnoccae (KLG-076), H. sinensis (KLG-121), and H. taiwanensis (KLG-021). A fifth, represented by eight isolates (KLG-034, KLG-063, KLG-074, KLG-078, KLG-79, KLG-082, KLG-084, KLG-085), is not conspecific with any previously described Hannaella species, and forms the sister clade to H. surugaensis in the phylogenetic analysis. It has 2.6-3.9% (18-27 substitutions, 2-4 deletions, and 1-3 insertions in 610-938 bp-long alignments), and 9.8-10.0% nucleotide differences (37 substitutions and 14 insertions in 511-520 bp-long alignments) in the LSU and ITS regions, respectively, to H. surugaensis type strain, CBS 9426. Herein, the new species Hannaella theobromatis sp. nov. is described and characterised. The species epithet refers to its epiphytic ecology on its host Theobroma cacao.

Fungal Pathogens of Cacao in Puerto Rico

Cacao production is a rapidly expanding industry in Puerto Rico, with new farmers planting ~20,000 trees in the past few years. To determine the etiology and extent of diseases affecting cacao in Puerto Rico, a survey was performed at eight sites around the island. Pod rot and/or branch dieback were observed at all sites. Most organisms isolated from symptomatic pod and stem samples were identified as Diaporthe spp. (48%) and Lasiodiplodia spp. (25%) based on sequences of the internal transcribed spacer and large subunit regions. Within these genera, Diaporthe tulliensis and Lasiodiplodia theobromae were the most prevalent species and were used in inoculation studies to determine their relative virulence on pods and stems. Phytophthora palmivora served as a positive control due to its well-established pathogenicity in all tissues. On pods, L. theobromae and P. palmivora caused significantly larger lesions (6.1 and 5.9 cm, respectively) than D. tulliensis (2.7 cm) four days post-inoculation. All three species caused disease on stems, with no differences found among species. Although P. palmivora was thought to be the primary pathogen affecting cacao in Puerto Rico, this study identifies L. theobromae and D. tulliensis as the common pathogens on the island. This improved understanding will help scientists and farmers control disease by selecting fungicides effective against both oomycetes and fungi.

First Report of Thread Blight Caused by Marasmius tenuissimus on Cacao (Theobroma cacao) in Peru

Peru is the second largest producer of organic cocoa and one of the most important suppliers of fine aroma cocoa beans in the world (Sánchez et al. 2019). The fine aroma cocoa produced by smallholder farmers in the Bagua and Utcubamba Provinces, Amazonas Department, under the name of "Cacao Amazonas Peru", is protected by the Peruvian appellation rules (Díaz-Valderrama et al. 2020). Despite this importance, native diseases of the crop (Theobroma cacao) are poorly documented due to difficulty of access in this region. In November 2020 we conducted expeditions into Imaza District (4°47'09.4"S 78°16'51.6"W), a significant producer of fine aroma cocoa in terms of number of cultivated plots (4,651 out of 6,505 total in the Bagua Province) (INEI 2012). We visited 20 farms of < 2-ha in size; in 19 of these small farms, T. cacao trees were found infected with a white fungal thread blight and rhizomorphs covering branches and leaves. Disease incidence ranged from 90 to nearly 100%, and severity exceeded 80% on the eight farms with the most deficient phytosanitary management. Heavily infected leaves were hanging on branches by mycelial threads, harboring tiny (0.5 to 5.3 mm broad) white mushrooms. These symptoms and signs correspond to the thread blight disease constellation (TBD) of cacao caused by various species of Marasmius and Marasmiellus (Amoako-Attah et al. 2020). Mushrooms lacked a collarium, and their stipes were absent or rudimentary (< 2-mm long) and eccentric, consistent with Marasmius tenuissimus (Tan et al. 2009). Axenic cultures were obtained by surface sterilization of mycelium threads with 2% NaClO, rinsed three times in sterile water, plated on potato dextrose agar medium (PDA), and incubated for 7 days at 25°C. Hyphae was non-pigmented with clamp connections, consistent with the genus Marasmius. We extracted the DNA of isolate INDES-AFHP31 using the Wizard® Purification Kit (Promega Corp., Madison, Wisconsin) and sequenced the rDNA internal transcribed spacer 1 and 2 intervening the 5.8S subunit (ITS), and the 28S subunit (LSU) (Accession numbers: OM720123 and OM720135) according to Aime and Phillips-Mora (2005). The ITS and LSU sequences were 97.92 to 98.79% and 99.07 to 99.30% identical, respectively, with published sequences from M. tenuissimus from Ghana (Amoako-Attah et al. 2020). The pathogenicity test was conducted by inoculation of ten healthy cacao leaves with 7-day-old mycelium PDA discs of isolate INDES-AFHP31. An equal number of healthy cacao leaves were inoculated with PDA discs without mycelium as control. The observation of TBD symptoms and signs in the non-control set of cacao leaves starting at 3 days post inoculation, and the re-isolation of the same fungus from infected tissue confirmed its pathogenicity on cacao. Isolate INDES-AFHP31 was deposited as a dried culture into the herbarium Kuélap of the Universidad Nacional Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza de Amazonas (voucher KUELAP-2251). Marasmius tenuissimus was originally reported from dead and living twigs and leaves of unidentified dicotyledonous trees from Indonesia, Brazil, and Bolivia (Singer 1976). However, it was first associated with TBD of cacao in Ghana in 2020, being the most frequently TBD-causing fungus isolated in the country (Amoako-Attah et al. 2020). Its discovery in 19 of the 20 surveyed cacao farms in Imaza District, Amazonas, Peru, reveals its importance as a cacao pathogen in the Western hemisphere.

Theobroma cacao L. cultivar CCN 51: a comprehensive review on origin, genetics, sensory properties, production dynamics, and physiological aspects

Many decades of improvement in cacao have aided to obtain cultivars with characteristics of tolerance to diseases, adaptability to different edaphoclimatic conditions, and higher yields. In Ecuador, as a result of several breeding programs, the clone CCN 51 was obtained, which gradually expanded through the cacao-production regions of Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil and Peru. Recognized for its high yield and adaptability to different regions and environments, it has become one of the most popular clones for breeding programs and cultivation around the world. This review aims to summarize the current evidence on the origin, genetics, morphological, volatile compounds, and organoleptic characteristics of this clone. Physiological evidence, production dynamics, and floral biology are also included to explain the high yield of CCN 51. Thus, characteristics such as osmotic adjustment, long pollen longevity, and fruit formation are further discussed and associated with high production at the end of the dry period. Finally, the impact of this popular clone on the current and future cacao industry will be discussed highlighting the major challenges for flavor enhancement and its relevance as a platform for the identification of novel genetic markers for cultivar improvement in breeding programs.

Quality differentiation of cocoa beans: implications for geographical indications

Geographical indications may stimulate collective actions of governance for quality control, trade and marketing as well as innovation based on the use of local resources and regional biodiversity. Cocoa production, however, dominated by small family agriculture in tropical regions, has rarely made use of such strategies. This review is aimed at understanding major research interests and emerging technologies helpful for the origin differentiation of cocoa quality. Results from literature search and cited references of publications on cocoa research were imported into VOSviewer for data analysis, which aided in visualizing major research hotpots. Co-occurrence analysis yielded major research clusters which guided the discussion of this review. Observed was a consensus recognizing cocoa quality resulting from the interaction of genotype, fermentation variables and geographical origin. A classic view of cocoa genetics based on the dichotomy of 'fine versus bulk' has been reexamined by a broader perspective of human selection and cocoa genotype evolution. This new approach to cocoa genetic diversity, together with the understanding of complex microbiome interactions through fermentation, as well as quality reproducibility challenged by geographical conditions, have demonstrated the importance of terroir in the production of special attributes. Cocoa growing communities around the tropics have been clearly enabled by new omics and chemometrics to systematize producing conditions and practices in the designation of specifications for the differentiation of origin quality. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Assessment of the Potential of Trichoderma spp. Strains Native to Bagua (Amazonas, Peru) in the Biocontrol of Frosty Pod Rot (Moniliophthora roreri)

The use of native Trichoderma strains has been proposed as a sustainable alternative to control cocoa diseases. The aim of this study was to assess indigenous Trichoderma strains from Bagua Province, Peru, with reference to their antagonistic characteristics in vitro and their potential for in vitro biocontrol against frosty pod rot (FPR) disease. A total of 199 strains were assessed for in vitro mycoparasitism, antibiosis, and potential antagonism. The effect of four strains was evaluated in vitro using epidemiological variables, yield, and efficacy at two sites (Copallín and La Peca). Significant differences (p < 0.05) were reported for all variables evaluated in vitro and in vitro. Mycoparasitism ranged from 32% to 100%, antibiosis from 33.36% to 57.92%, and potential antagonism from 42.36% to 78.64%. All strains were found to affect the in vitro-assessed parameters in addition to enhancing the productive yield. The efficiency ranged from 38.99% to 71.9% in Copallín, and 45.88% to 51.16% in La Peca. The CP24-6 strain showed the highest potential for biocontrol under field conditions when considering its effect on both sites.