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Xu P, Chen Z, Ma J, Shan Y, Wang Y, Xie B, Zheng D, Guo F, Song X, Gao G, Ye K, Liu Y, Pan G, Jiang B, Peng F, Zhong X. Biallelic CLCN2 mutations cause retinal degeneration by impairing retinal pigment epithelium phagocytosis and chloride channel function. Hum Genet 2023; 142:577-593. [PMID: 36964785 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-023-02531-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/26/2023]
Abstract
CLCN2 encodes a two-pore homodimeric chloride channel protein (CLC-2) that is widely expressed in human tissues. The association between Clcn2 and the retina is well-established in mice, as loss-of-function of CLC-2 can cause retinopathy in mice; however, the ocular phenotypes caused by CLCN2 mutations in humans and the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. The present study aimed to define the ocular features and reveal the pathogenic mechanisms of CLCN2 variants associated with retinal degeneration in humans using an in vitro overexpression system, as well as patient-induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells and retinal organoids (ROs). A patient carrying the homozygous c.2257C > T (p.R753X) nonsense CLCN2 mutation was followed up for > 6 years. Ocular features were comprehensively characterized with multimodality imaging and functional examination. The patient presented with severe bilateral retinal degeneration with loss of photoreceptor and RPE. In vitro, mutant CLC-2 maintained the correct subcellular localization, but with reduced channel function compared to wild-type CLC-2 in HEK293T cells. Additionally, patient iPSC-derived RPE cells carrying the CLCN2 mutation exhibited dysfunctional ClC-2 chloride channels and outer segment phagocytosis. Notably, these functions were rescued following the repair of the CLCN2 mutation using the CRISPR-Cas9 system. However, this variant did not cause significant photoreceptor degeneration in patient-derived ROs, indicating that dysfunctional RPE is likely the primary cause of biallelic CLCN2 variant-mediated retinopathy. This study is the first to establish the confirmatory ocular features of human CLCN2-related retinal degeneration, and reveal a pathogenic mechanism associated with biallelic CLCN2 variants, providing new insights into the cause of inherited retinal dystrophies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Zhuolin Chen
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510630, China
| | - Jianchi Ma
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China
| | - Yongli Shan
- CAS Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, South China, Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510530, China
| | - Yuan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Bingbing Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Dandan Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Fuying Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Xiaojing Song
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Guanjie Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Ke Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Yizhi Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Guangjin Pan
- CAS Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, South China, Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510530, China
| | - Bin Jiang
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China
| | - Fuhua Peng
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510630, China.
| | - Xiufeng Zhong
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510060, China.
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Mihaljevic M, Lam M, Ayala-Grosso C, Davis-Batt F, Schretlen DJ, Ishizuka K, Yang K, Sawa A. Olfactory neuronal cells as a promising tool to realize the "druggable genome" approach for drug discovery in neuropsychiatric disorders. Front Neurosci 2023; 16:1081124. [PMID: 36967982 PMCID: PMC10038100 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.1081124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/26/2022] [Indexed: 03/12/2023] Open
Abstract
"Druggable genome" is a novel concept that emphasizes the importance of using the information of genome-wide genetic studies for drug discovery and development. Successful precedents of "druggable genome" have recently emerged for some disorders by combining genomic and gene expression profiles with medical and pharmacological knowledge. One of the key premises for the success is the good access to disease-relevant tissues from "living" patients in which we may observe molecular expression changes in association with symptomatic alteration. Thus, given brain biopsies are ethically and practically difficult, the application of the "druggable genome" approach is challenging for neuropsychiatric disorders. Here, to fill this gap, we propose the use of olfactory neuronal cells (ONCs) biopsied and established via nasal biopsy from living subjects. By using candidate genes that were proposed in a study in which genetic information, postmortem brain expression profiles, and pharmacological knowledge were considered for cognition in the general population, we addressed the utility of ONCs in the "druggable genome" approach by using the clinical and cell resources of an established psychosis cohort in our group. Through this pilot effort, we underscored the chloride voltage-gated channel 2 (CLCN2) gene as a possible druggable candidate for early-stage psychosis. The CLCN2 gene expression was associated with verbal memory, but not with other dimensions in cognition, nor psychiatric manifestations (positive and negative symptoms). The association between this candidate molecule and verbal memory was also confirmed at the protein level. By using ONCs from living subjects, we now provide more specific information regarding molecular expression and clinical phenotypes. The use of ONCs also provides the opportunity of validating the relationship not only at the RNA level but also protein level, leading to the potential of functional assays in the future. Taken together, we now provide evidence that supports the utility of ONCs as a tool for the "druggable genome" approach in translational psychiatry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Mihaljevic
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Max Lam
- IMH Neuropsychiatric Genomics Laboratory, Institute of Mental Health, Singapore, Singapore
- Population and Global Health, LKC Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
- Neurogenomic Biomarkers Laboratory, Zucker Hillside Hospital, Glen Oaks, NY, United States
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Carlos Ayala-Grosso
- Unit of Cellular Therapy, Centre of Experimental Medicine, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Cientificas IVIC, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Finn Davis-Batt
- Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - David J. Schretlen
- Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Koko Ishizuka
- Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Kun Yang
- Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Akira Sawa
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Department of Pharmacology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Department of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Department of Mental Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
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Liu D, De Schutter K, Far J, Staes A, Dewettinck K, Quinton L, Gevaert K, Smagghe G. RNAi of Mannosidase-Ia in the Colorado potato beetle and changes in the midgut and peritrophic membrane. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2022; 78:5071-5079. [PMID: 36053804 DOI: 10.1002/ps.7145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In addition to its role in the digestive system, the peritrophic membrane (PM) provides a physical barrier protecting the intestine from abrasion and against pathogens. Because of its sensitivity to RNA interference (RNAi), the notorious pest insect, the Colorado potato beetle (CPB, Leptinotarsa decemlineata), has become a model insect for functional studies. Previously, RNAi-mediated silencing of Mannosidase-Ia (ManIa), a key enzyme in the transition from high-mannose glycan moieties to paucimannose N-glycans, was shown to disrupt the transition from larva to pupa and the metamorphosis into adult beetles. While these effects at the organismal level were interesting in a pest control context, the effects at the organ or tissue level and also immune effects have not been investigated yet. To fill this knowledge gap, we performed an analysis of the midgut and PM in ManIa-silenced insects. RESULTS As marked phenotype, the ManIaRNAi insects, the PM pore size was found to be decreased when compared to the control GFPRNAi insects. These smaller pores are related to the observation of thinner microvilli (Mv) on the epithelial cells of the midgut of ManIaRNAi insects. A midgut and PM proteome study and reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) analysis with a selection of marker genes was performed to characterize the midgut cells and understand their response to the silencing of ManIa. In agreement with the loss of ManIa activity, an accumulation of high-mannose N-glycans was observed in the ManIa-silenced insects. As a pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP), the presence of these glycan structures could trigger the activation of the immune pathways. CONCLUSION The observed decrease in PM pore size could be a response to prevent potential pathogens to access the midgut epithelium. This hypothesis is supported by the strong increase in transcription levels of the anti-fungal peptide drosomycin-like in ManIaRNAi insects, although further research is required to elucidate this possibility. The potential immune response in the midgut and the smaller pore size in the PM shed a light on the function of the PM as a physical barrier and provide evidence for the relation between the Mv and PM. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongdong Liu
- Laboratory of Agrozoology, Department Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Kristof De Schutter
- Laboratory of Agrozoology, Department Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Johann Far
- Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, MolSys Research Unit, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - An Staes
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Biomolecular Medicine, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Koen Dewettinck
- Food Structure and Function Research Group, Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Loic Quinton
- Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, MolSys Research Unit, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Kris Gevaert
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Biomolecular Medicine, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Guy Smagghe
- Laboratory of Agrozoology, Department Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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He M, Rong R, Ji D, Xia X. From Bench to Bed: The Current Genome Editing Therapies for Glaucoma. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:879957. [PMID: 35652098 PMCID: PMC9149310 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.879957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Glaucoma is a group of optic neuropathies featured by degeneration of retinal ganglion cells and loss of their axons in the optic nerve. The only currently approved therapies focus on lowering intraocular pressure with medication and surgery. Over the previous few decades, technological advances and research progress regarding pathogenesis has brought glaucomatous gene therapy to the forefront. In this review, we discuss the three current genome editing methods and potential disease mechanisms of glaucoma. We further summarize different genome editing strategies that are being developed to target a number of glaucoma-related genes and pathways from four aspects including strategies to lower intraocular pressure, neuroprotection, RGC and optic nerve neuro-regeneration, and other strategies. In summary, genome therapy is a promising therapy for treating patients with glaucoma and has great potential to be widely applied in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meihui He
- Eye Center of Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Hunan Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Changsha, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Rong Rong
- Eye Center of Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Hunan Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Changsha, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Dan Ji
- Eye Center of Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Hunan Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Changsha, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Xiaobo Xia
- Eye Center of Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Hunan Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Changsha, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
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Collin GB, Shi L, Yu M, Akturk N, Charette JR, Hyde LF, Weatherly SM, Pera MF, Naggert JK, Peachey NS, Nishina PM, Krebs MP. A Splicing Mutation in Slc4a5 Results in Retinal Detachment and Retinal Pigment Epithelium Dysfunction. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:2220. [PMID: 35216333 PMCID: PMC8875008 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23042220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2021] [Revised: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Fluid and solute transporters of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) are core components of the outer blood-retinal barrier. Characterizing these transporters and their role in retinal homeostasis may provide insights into ocular function and disease. Here, we describe RPE defects in tvrm77 mice, which exhibit hypopigmented patches in the central retina. Mapping and nucleotide sequencing of tvrm77 mice revealed a disrupted 5' splice donor sequence in Slc4a5, a sodium bicarbonate cotransporter gene. Slc4a5 expression was reduced 19.7-fold in tvrm77 RPE relative to controls, and alternative splice variants were detected. SLC4A5 was localized to the Golgi apparatus of cultured human RPE cells and in apical and basal membranes. Fundus imaging, optical coherence tomography, microscopy, and electroretinography (ERG) of tvrm77 mice revealed retinal detachment, hypopigmented patches corresponding to neovascular lesions, and retinal folds. Detachment worsened and outer nuclear layer thickness decreased with age. ERG a- and b-wave response amplitudes were initially normal but declined in older mice. The direct current ERG fast oscillation and light peak were reduced in amplitude at all ages, whereas other RPE-associated responses were unaffected. These results link a new Slc4a5 mutation to subretinal fluid accumulation and altered light-evoked RPE electrophysiological responses, suggesting that SLC4A5 functions at the outer blood-retinal barrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gayle B. Collin
- The Jackson Laboratory, 600 Main Street, Bar Harbor, ME 04609, USA; (G.B.C.); (L.S.); (N.A.); (J.R.C.); (L.F.H.); (S.M.W.); (M.F.P.); (J.K.N.)
| | - Lanying Shi
- The Jackson Laboratory, 600 Main Street, Bar Harbor, ME 04609, USA; (G.B.C.); (L.S.); (N.A.); (J.R.C.); (L.F.H.); (S.M.W.); (M.F.P.); (J.K.N.)
| | - Minzhong Yu
- Department of Ophthalmic Research, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; (M.Y.); (N.S.P.)
- Department of Ophthalmology, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Nurten Akturk
- The Jackson Laboratory, 600 Main Street, Bar Harbor, ME 04609, USA; (G.B.C.); (L.S.); (N.A.); (J.R.C.); (L.F.H.); (S.M.W.); (M.F.P.); (J.K.N.)
| | - Jeremy R. Charette
- The Jackson Laboratory, 600 Main Street, Bar Harbor, ME 04609, USA; (G.B.C.); (L.S.); (N.A.); (J.R.C.); (L.F.H.); (S.M.W.); (M.F.P.); (J.K.N.)
| | - Lillian F. Hyde
- The Jackson Laboratory, 600 Main Street, Bar Harbor, ME 04609, USA; (G.B.C.); (L.S.); (N.A.); (J.R.C.); (L.F.H.); (S.M.W.); (M.F.P.); (J.K.N.)
| | - Sonia M. Weatherly
- The Jackson Laboratory, 600 Main Street, Bar Harbor, ME 04609, USA; (G.B.C.); (L.S.); (N.A.); (J.R.C.); (L.F.H.); (S.M.W.); (M.F.P.); (J.K.N.)
| | - Martin F. Pera
- The Jackson Laboratory, 600 Main Street, Bar Harbor, ME 04609, USA; (G.B.C.); (L.S.); (N.A.); (J.R.C.); (L.F.H.); (S.M.W.); (M.F.P.); (J.K.N.)
| | - Jürgen K. Naggert
- The Jackson Laboratory, 600 Main Street, Bar Harbor, ME 04609, USA; (G.B.C.); (L.S.); (N.A.); (J.R.C.); (L.F.H.); (S.M.W.); (M.F.P.); (J.K.N.)
| | - Neal S. Peachey
- Department of Ophthalmic Research, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; (M.Y.); (N.S.P.)
- Department of Ophthalmology, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
- Research Service, Louis Stokes Cleveland VA Medical Center, 10701 East Boulevard, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Patsy M. Nishina
- The Jackson Laboratory, 600 Main Street, Bar Harbor, ME 04609, USA; (G.B.C.); (L.S.); (N.A.); (J.R.C.); (L.F.H.); (S.M.W.); (M.F.P.); (J.K.N.)
| | - Mark P. Krebs
- The Jackson Laboratory, 600 Main Street, Bar Harbor, ME 04609, USA; (G.B.C.); (L.S.); (N.A.); (J.R.C.); (L.F.H.); (S.M.W.); (M.F.P.); (J.K.N.)
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Hanke-Gogokhia C, Lehmann GL, Benedicto I, de la Fuente-Ortega E, Arshavsky VY, Schreiner R, Rodriguez-Boulan E. Apical CLC-2 in retinal pigment epithelium is crucial for survival of the outer retina. FASEB J 2021; 35:e21689. [PMID: 34085737 PMCID: PMC8252757 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202100349r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Knockout of the chloride channel protein 2 (CLC‐2; CLCN2) results in fast progressing blindness in mice. Retinal Pigment Epithelium (RPE) and photoreceptors undergo, in parallel, rapid, and profound morphological changes and degeneration. Immunohistochemistry and electron microscopy of the outer retina and electroretinography of the CLC‐2 KO mouse demonstrated normal morphology at postnatal day 2, followed by drastic changes in RPE and photoreceptor morphology and loss of vision during the first postnatal month. To investigate whether the RPE or the photoreceptors are the primary cause of the degeneration, we injected lentiviruses carrying HA‐tagged CLC‐2 with an RPE‐specific promotor in the subretinal space of CLC‐2‐KO mice at the time of eye opening. As expected, CLC‐2‐HA was expressed exclusively in RPE; strikingly, this procedure rescued the degeneration of both RPE and photoreceptors. Light response in transduced eyes was also recovered. Only a fraction of RPE was transduced with the lentivirus; however, the entire RPE monolayer appears healthy, even the RPE cells not expressing the CLC‐2‐HA. Surprisingly, in contrast with previous physiological observations that postulate that CLC‐2 has a basolateral localization in RPE, our immunofluorescence experiments demonstrated CLC‐2 has an apical distribution, facing the subretinal space and the photoreceptor outer segments. Our findings suggest that CLC‐2 does not play the postulated role in fluid transport at the basolateral membrane. Rather, they suggest that CLC‐2 performs a critical homeostatic role in the subretinal compartment involving a chloride regulatory mechanism that is critical for the survival of both RPE and photoreceptors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ignacio Benedicto
- Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Erwin de la Fuente-Ortega
- Departamento de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Católica del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile
| | - Vadim Y Arshavsky
- Department of Ophthalmology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Ryan Schreiner
- Division of Regenerative Medicine, Ansary Stem Cell Institute, Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Enrique Rodriguez-Boulan
- Department of Ophthalmology, Margaret Dyson Vision Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
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