The transverse abdominal island flap: part I. Indications, contraindications, results, and complications

Perforator-Related Risk Factors for Perfusion-Related Complications in DIEP Flap Breast Reconstruction

Introduction

Despite the advancements in deep inferior epigastric artery perforator (DIEP) flap breast reconstruction, perfusion-related complications (PRCs) remain a concern. Such complications can negatively impact the aesthetic outcome, necessitate revisional surgery and delay adjuvant chemotherapy and radiotherapy. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of perforator diameter, perforator row, and the shortest distance between the perforator and flap edge on the development of PRCs in DIEP flap breast reconstruction.

Methods

This cohort study prospectively analysed the stored data for consecutive patients who underwent unilateral DIEP flap breast reconstruction from January 2008 to January 2023. Variables with p<0.25 in univariate analysis were included in multivariate logistic regression analysis to identify the risk factors for PRCs. p<0.05 was deemed statistically significant. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis was conducted to identify the critical distance between the perforator and flap edge distinguishing the PRCs.

Results

V Overall, 292 cases of unilateral DIEP flap breast reconstruction were identified, with a mean patient age of 52.6 years. PRCs occurred in 72 cases (24.7%). Multivariate logistic regression identified the shortest distance between the perforator and flap edge that has a significant impact on PRC incidence. ROC curve analysis found the critical shortest distance between the perforator and flap edge distinguishing PRCs to be 42.5 mm.

Conclusions

This study showed that the shortest distance between the perforator and flap edge is a strong predictor for PRCs in DIEP flap breast reconstruction. As several perforator characteristics are considered when designing and performing DIEP flap breast reconstruction, these findings can guide surgeons in this decision-making process.

Microsurgical Breast Reconstruction can be Performed Safely in Patients with Obesity

BACKGROUND

 Numerous studies have shown that obesity is a risk factor for postoperative complications following breast reconstruction. Hence, obesity has traditionally been considered a relative contraindication to microsurgical breast reconstruction. In this study, we investigated the impact of obesity on outcomes following microsurgical breast reconstruction.

METHODS

 A retrospective analysis of 200 consecutive patients who underwent microsurgical breast reconstruction with free abdominal flaps was performed. Subjects were divided into Nonobese (body mass index [BMI] < 30 kg/m2) and Obese (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2) cohorts. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to evaluate differences in patient characteristics, complication rates, and efficiency metrics between the two groups.

RESULTS

 Of the 200 subjects included in the study, 128 were Nonobese, 72 were Obese. The prevalence of diabetes (3.9 vs. 16.9%, p = 0.002) and hypertension (14.7 vs. 39.4%, p < 0.001) were significantly greater in the Obese cohort. Among unilateral reconstructions, postoperative length of stay (LOS) was longer among Obese patients (3.1 vs. 3.6 days, p = 0.016). Seroma occurred more frequently in Obese patients following bilateral reconstruction (5.7 vs. 0.0%, p = 0.047). Otherwise, there were no significant differences in complication rates between the groups. On multivariate analysis, BMI was not independently associated with complications, LOS, or operative time.

CONCLUSION

 The improvements in clinical and patient-reported outcomes that have been associated with postmastectomy breast reconstruction do not exclude obese women. This study indicates that microsurgical breast reconstruction can be performed safely and efficiently in patients with obesity.

Coverage of large soft tissue defects of the lower limb and foot with superficial inferior epigastric artery flap

Background

Large soft tissue defects of the lower limb and foot are common occurrence in clinical practice and a considerable number of flaps have been used to treat them. However, there have been few reports using the superficial inferior epigastric artery (SIEA) flap. This review aims to present the experience of using the SIEA flaps for the repair of large soft tissue defects of the lower limb and foot.

Methods

A retrospective review of data from 11 patients who underwent coverage of lower limb and foot defects exceeding 120 cm2 (15 × 9 cm) using SIEA flaps from March 2018 to July 2022 were retrospectively reviewed. The average size of the defects was 18 × 11 cm2 (range 15 × 9 cm2-32 × 16 cm2). Flap survival rates, surgical complications and overall long-term outcomes were recorded.

Results

All 11 flaps survived. One flap was partially necrotic at the edge and healed after several changes of dressing. Additionally, one flap presented with mild venous congestion. The mean follow-up period was 18 months (ranging from 12 to 30 months). The mean size of the flaps was 20 × 12 cm2 (range 17 × 9 cm2-34 × 18 cm2). The flaps were observed to be aesthetically pleasing and exhibited a well-defined texture. The donor wounds were successfully closed primarily, with only linear scarring remaining.

Conclusions

The SIEA flap is characterised by concealed donor area, superficial vascular location, easy access and primary closure, which results in favourable aesthetic outcomes. It is an appropriate choice for the repair of large soft tissue defects of the lower limb and foot.

Perfusion Mapping of Flaps Using Indocyanine Green Fluorescence Angiography and Laser Speckle Contrast Imaging

Background

Indocyanine green fluorescence angiography (ICG-FA) is often used for assessing tissue circulation in reconstructive surgery. Indocyanine green (ICG) is injected intravenously and visualized in the tissue with an infrared camera. The information is used to plan the surgery, for example, in free flap breast reconstructions. Laser speckle contrast imaging (LSCI) is another method that uses laser to assess tissue perfusion in the skin. Unlike ICG-FA, LSCI is noninvasive and may therefore have an advantaged compared with ICG-FA. The aim of this study was to evaluate the correlation between information obtained from these two techniques.

Methods

Five deep inferior epigastric perforator patients were included. The flaps were assessed with LSCI and ICG-FA. For LSCI, the perfusion was calculated in 32 regions of interest. For ICG-FA, the maximum slope and area under curve (AUC) were calculated based on average pixel intensity data.

Results

Large variations in maximum slope values could be seen between flaps, whereas AUC had lower variability within the same flap and between flaps. Pearson rank correlation comparing average perfusion (LSCI) and AUC (ICG-FA) showed a correlation between the values (r = 0.55, P < 0.0001). No significant correlation was observed between perfusion and maximum slope (r = 0.11, P = 0.18).

Conclusions

There is a significant correlation between data obtained using LSCI and ICG-FA, when ICG-FA data are presented as AUC of the ICG-FA intensity curve. Maximum slope lacks significant correlation with flap data obtained with LSCI. The study indicates that LSCI may be used in reconstructive surgery to assess tissue circulation in a way similar to ICG-FA.

Risk Stratification of Surgical Site Outcomes by BMI & Flap Type in Autologous Breast Reconstruction

INTRODUCTION

Afflicting 2 million lives annually worldwide, breast cancer remains devastating. This study utilized a continuously updated network of electronic medical records (TriNetX Inc, Cambridge, MA) for analysis of 90-day postoperative outcomes of autologous breast reconstruction by increasing body mass index (BMI).

METHODS

The deidentified electronic medical records (EMRs) of 29,453,000 females, age 18-99 years, were retrospectively screened from 45 healthcare organizations. A combined cohort of 7136 patients undergoing autologous breast reconstruction via transverse rectus abdominus muscle (TRAM), deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP), or latissimus flap was categorized by BMI into 5 subgroups: normal (n = 3568), overweight (n = 1239), class I (n = 1166), class II (n = 807), and class III (n = 356) obesity. The normal BMI cohort was then compared with each elevated BMI cohort. BMI strata were analyzed for risk of surgical-site occurrences within 90 days of surgery using CPT codes. Stringent propensity score matching was performed.

RESULTS

For the combined group (N = 7136), significant linear increases in risk were observed with increasing BMI for infection (risk ratio [RR] 1.39-2.91,p < 0.05) and dehiscence (RR 2.65-5.17, p < 0.05). Similar linear increases were observed for the abdominally based group (N = 5454) for infection (RR 1.45-2.47, p < 0.05) and dehiscence (RR 2.54-4.77, p < 0.05). For DIEP (N = 4874), near-linear increases were observed for infection (RR 1.60-2.79, p < 0.05) and dehiscence (RR 1.57-5.59, p < 0.05). For TRAM (N = 714), significant increases were observed for seroma, infection, dehiscence, deep vein thrombosis (DVT), sepsis, and PE while increased risks of seroma, DVT, PE, and hernia were observed for latissimus (N = 1380).

CONCLUSIONS

Regardless of flap type, our analysis suggests that a BMI> 39.9 is the inflection point beyond which it may be beneficial not to perform autologous breast reconstruction. Limitations include this study's retrospective nature; thus, future prospective studies would be beneficial.

Superficial Thinning of the DIEP Flap: A Safe Option to Achieve an Aesthetic Reconstructed Breast in the Obese Patient

BACKGROUND

Abdominal flap-based breast reconstruction is challenging in the overweight and obese population not only because of increased donor-site complications, but also because excessive flap thickness makes inset cumbersome, requiring thinning and remodeling that frequently result in aesthetically poor outcomes.

METHODS

The authors started by studying 10 deep inferior epigastric artery perforator flaps with angiographic computed tomography. Then, they prospectively performed 21 breast reconstructions using a superficial thinning technique reliant on a constant suprafascial vessel as the pedicle for the remaining deep fat and compared the rate of complications with their previous experience using traditional flap thinning techniques.

RESULTS

All samples studied showed a suprafascial division of the main perforator. Two constant branches were identified, one coursing over the Scarpa fascia and displaying a robust network of linking vessels with the subcutaneous and subdermal plexuses. That anatomical insight was used to develop a flap-thinning technique tested on 21 consecutive high-body mass index patients. A 7-year retrospective analysis (n = 164) showed no significant correlation between body mass index and incidence of complications except for a long-term upper pole step deformity that was associated with increasing body mass index (p = 0.001). No statistically significant difference in complications was found comparing high-body mass index patients from the retrospective group (n = 72) with the superficial thinning group, but a highly suggestive difference (p = 0.061) was found regarding the avoidance of the step deformity using the superficial thinning technique.

CONCLUSION

The presence of a constant suprafascial perforator branch makes superficial DIEP thinning a safe technique that facilitates inset and improves the reconstructed breast contour of obese patients.

CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic, IV.

Leaving the perfusion zones? Individualized flap design in 100 free DIEP and ms-TRAM flaps for autologous breast reconstruction using indocyanine green angiography

BACKGROUND

There is still no consensus regarding the ideal zoning in abdominal-based autologous breast reconstruction using free DIEP or ms-TRAM flaps. In particular, the perfusion pattern of the flap according to the number of perforators used and their location remains controversial. In this study, the perfusion of free DIEP and ms-TRAM flaps is assessed intraoperatively and analyzed with regard to different perfusion patterns.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis of 100 free flaps for breast reconstruction was performed. Following complete flap harvest, we used indocyanine green angiography for perfusion analysis. By applying two different contour levels, DIEP flaps with lateral or medial perforators and ms-TRAM flaps were assessed for their respective perfusion patterns.

RESULTS

No statistically significant differences were found in the size of the perfusion area between the different flap types when applying the contour level of 20% (p >0.05). For the contour level of 30%, however, statistically significant differences were found between DIEP flaps with medially or laterally located perforators (p = 0.038). Laterally or medially located perforators in DIEP flaps showed no significant differences in their ability to cross the midline (contour level 20%, p = 0.068; contour level 30%, p = 0.058).

CONCLUSION

Considering the variability of the perfusion of the abdominal wall and the high sensitivity of indocyanine green angiography for their detection, the abdominal zonings play a minor role. By using intraoperative indocyanine green angiography, a precise and patient-specific free flap surgery for autologous breast reconstruction is possible independent of perforator location.

Necrosis or Flap Loss After Deep Inferior Epigastric Perforator Reconstruction: Impact of Perforators and Recipient Vessels

Background The aim of this study is to analyze the impact of the number and location of perforators harvested and the recipient vessels used on deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap survival and the occurrence of flap necrosis requiring re-operation.

Patients and Methods Four hundred and seventy-one DIEP flap reconstructions, performed between January 2008 and December 2019, were retrospectively analyzed.

Results Flap necrosis requiring re-operation was observed in 40 (9%) of flaps and total flap loss rate was 1% (n = 6). No significant differences were observed between internal mammary vessels (IMV, n = 287, 61%) and thoracodorsal vessels (TDV, n = 184, 39%) regarding postoperative re-anastomosis (p = 0.529) or flap survival (p = 0.646). Intraoperative conversion from IMV to TDV was performed on 64 (14%) patients. TDV were more commonly associated with problems in preparation of the vessels than IMV (p < 0.001). Second vein anastomosis was performed on 18 (4%) patients. In total, 81 flaps (17%) had one perforator, 165 (35%) had two, 218 (46%) had three to five, and 7 (2%) had more than five perforators. Flaps with three to five perforators were more commonly associated with flap necrosis (p < 0.001) than flaps with one or two perforators. Independent factors associated with necrosis were body mass index (BMI) > 30 (odds ratio [OR]: 2.28; 95% confidence interval: 1.06–4.91, p = 0.035) and perforator/s located on the lateral row (OR: 3.08, 95% CI 1.29–7.33, p = 0.011).

Conclusion We conclude that the occurrence of flap necrosis requiring re-operation may be higher in DIEP flaps with more than two perforators or perforator/s located on the lateral row and in obese patients. Neither the recipient vessels used nor the number of perforators harvested had any impact on the flap survival rate.

Performance of infrared thermography and thermal stress test in perforator mapping and flap monitoring: A meta-analysis of diagnostic accuracy

BACKGROUND

Accurate mapping of perforators prior to flap reconstruction and early detection of poor flap perfusion reduces the risk of flap failure. Infrared thermography (IRT) has recently regained popularity within reconstructive surgery to aid flap design, reduce operative time and assess flap viability based on surface temperature changes. The aim of this review is to quantify the diagnostic ability of IRT in perforator mapping preoperatively and monitor flap perfusion perioperatively.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review of literature and included all studies that evaluated the use of IRT for perforator mapping and flap perfusion monitoring. We used a mixed-effects logistic regression bivariate model to estimate the summary sensitivity and specificity and constructed hierarchical summary receiver operative characteristic (HSROC) curves.

OUTCOME

We identified 18 studies and observed IRT to have sensitivities of 99.6% and 89.6% with specificities of 99.9% and 96.0% for perforator mapping and flap monitoring, respectively. Moreover, IRT recognises patterns of perfusion within interperforator zones through visualisation of angiosomal rewarming and may improve flap outcomes.

Application of Botulinum Neurotoxin Injections in TRAM Flap for Breast Reconstruction: Intramuscular Neural Arborization of the Rectus Abdominis Muscle

Breast reconstruction after mastectomy is commonly performed using transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous (TRAM) flap. Previous studies have demonstrated that botulinum neurotoxin injections in TRAM flap surgeries lower the risk of necrosis and allow further expansion of arterial cross-sectional diameters. The study was designed to determine the ideal injection points for botulinum neurotoxin injection by exploring the arborization patterns of the intramuscular nerves of the rectus abdominis muscle. A modified Sihler's method was performed on 16 rectus abdominis muscle specimens. Arborization of the intramuscular nerves was determined based on the most prominent point of the xyphoid process to the pubic crest. All 16 rectus abdominis muscle specimens were divided into four muscle bellies by the tendinous portion. The arborized portions of the muscles were located on the 5-15%, 25-35%, 45-55%, and 70-80% sections of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th muscle bellies, respectively. The tendinous portion was located at the 15-20%, 35-40%, 55-60%, and 90-100% sections. These results suggest that botulinum neurotoxin injections into the rectus abdominis muscles should be performed in specific sections.

The influence of venous system patterns on DIEP flap viability for breast reconstruction

A deep inferior epigastric artery perforator (DIEP) flap has unique variations in the anatomy of the vascular supply, and this idea has been adapted to the venous system. Venous system patterns, including connections between the superficial and deep inferior epigastric vein (SDC) or connections of the superficial inferior epigastric vein across the midline-crossing linking veins (MCLV), have gradually become recognized as a cause of fat necrosis and induration due to venous congestion. Therefore, it is important to select patients who are appropriate for transplantation by evaluating blood flow in the flap based on these patterns. The subjects were 52 consecutive patients who underwent DIEP flap breast reconstruction. Relationships of fat necrosis and induration of a transplanted flap and venous system patterns (presence of SDC on the contralateral side: cSDC or MCLV, direction and diameter of perforator vein) in the flap were investigated. Logistic regression and univariate and multivariate analyses were used to identify predictors of fat necrosis and induration of the flap. Fat necrosis and induration were detected in 17.4 and 34.8% of cases, respectively. These incidences were significantly linked to the absence of cSDC and MCLV patterns in the flap. Patients without a cSDC or MCLV pattern had harder fat tissue in Zone II, especially in the distal portion. These results suggest that the absence of a cSDC or MCLV pattern causes complications such as fat necrosis and induration in a transplanted flap. If neither pattern is detected before surgery, improvement of venous drainage is recommended.

Rezoning Free Muscle-Sparing Transverse Rectus Abdominis Myocutaneous Flaps Based on Perforasome Groupings and a New Understanding of the Vascular Architecture of the Deep Inferior Epigastric Artery-Based Flaps

BACKGROUND

We compare the vascular territory of free muscle-sparing transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous (MS-TRAM) flaps, deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flaps, and crossover anastomosis (CA) flaps using intraoperative ex vivo angiography. We also use ex vivo angiography to analyze the vascular architecture of the MS-TRAM flap.

METHODS

Our study includes 84 lower abdominal free flaps: MS-TRAM, DIEP-1 (1 perforator), DIEP-2 (2 perforators), and CA. We compare the arterial perfusion area and vascular territory pattern in each group. We also analyze the vascular architecture in MS-TRAM flaps and determine the number and location of their dominant perforators and the direction of the axial arteries connecting them.

RESULTS

The CA's arterial perfusion area is the largest, and the DIEP-1's, the smallest of our groups; there is no statistically significant difference between MS-TRAM and DIEP-2. In all groups, average arterial perfusion area in the vascular pedicle's ipsilateral side is larger than in its contralateral side. The MS-TRAM and DIEP-2 flaps have homologous perfusion patterns and the same arterial perfusion areas. The DIEP-1 perfusion pattern varies with perforator location. Ex vivo angiograms show the MS-TRAM flap's axial arteries heading laterally to be larger and longer than those heading medially.

CONCLUSIONS

Two dominant perforators are preferable in DIEP flap breast reconstruction. Lateral perforators play a more important role in flap perfusion than do medial ones. Crossover anastomosis is an effective technology for increasing arterial perfusion areas. Our rezoning shows which areas are better for surgery and which have a high risk of complications-valuable information for a surgeon designing a flap for breast reconstruction.

The Value of Morphometric Measurements in Risk Assessment for Donor-Site Complications after Microsurgical Breast Reconstruction

Microsurgical abdominally-based reconstruction is considered the gold standard in autologous breast reconstruction. Despite refined surgical procedures, donor-site complications still occur, reducing patient satisfaction and quality of life. Recent work has outlined the potential of morphometric measurements in risk assessment for postoperative hernia development. With rising demand for personalised treatment, the goal of this study was to investigate their potential in risk assessment for any donor site complication. In this retrospective cohort study, 90 patients were included who each received microsurgical breast reconstruction at the hands of one surgeon between January 2015 and May 2017. Donor-site complications formed the primary outcome and were classified according to Clavien-Dindo. Morphometric measurements were taken on a routinely performed computed tomographic angiogram. Complications occurred in 13 of the 90 (14.4%) cases studied. All patients who developed any type of postoperative donor site complication had a history of abdominal surgery. The risk of postoperative complications increased by 3% with every square centimetre of omental fat tissue (OR 1.03, 95% CI 1.00-1.06, and p-value = 0.022). Morphometric measurements provide valuable information in risk assessment for donor-site complications in abdominally-based breast reconstruction. They may help identify personalised reconstructive options for maximal postoperative patient satisfaction and quality of life.

Estimation of Contralateral Perfusion in the DIEP Flap by Scoring the Midline-Crossing Vessels in Computed Tomographic Angiography

BACKGROUND

In deep inferior epigastric perforator flap surgery, the amount of perfusion achievable in the contralateral side over a midline is unclear. Predicting contralateral perfusion preoperatively using computed tomographic angiography will allow efficient breast reconstruction with decreased complications. The authors used computed tomographic angiography to determine whether contralateral perfusion is related to blood vessel status across the midline.

METHODS

Preoperative computed tomographic angiography scans and intraoperative perfusion in patients who underwent breast reconstruction with a deep inferior epigastric perforator flap between January of 2018 and July of 2018 were checked prospectively. A vessel scoring system was prepared according to vessel density across the flap midline on the scan (grade 0, no visible vessels; grade 1, visible vessels with disconnection or could not be judged as grade 0 or 2; grade 2, definite vessels). Intraoperative flap perfusion was confirmed with indocyanine green angiography. Postoperative fat necrosis was analyzed using ultrasonography.

RESULTS

Ninety-four patients were analyzed. Mean maximal contralateral perfusion length was as follows: grade 0, 7.50 ± 1.89 cm; grade 1, 7.93 ± 2.01 cm; and grade 2, 10.14 ± 2.29 cm. Grade 2 had a statistically significantly greater contralateral perfusion length than grade 0 (p < 0.001) and grade 1 (p < 0.001). Fat necrosis occurred in 27.3 percent (grade 0), 19.1 percent (grade 1), and 8 percent (grade 2), which was statistically significant (p = 0.035).

CONCLUSIONS

A definite vessel connection across the midline (as in grade 2) in preoperative computed tomographic angiography indicates that contralateral perfusion will be sufficiently achieved. This vessel scoring system would be helpful in predicting flap perfusion and planning the surgery.

CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Diagnostic, IV.

The Reconstruction after a Giant Phyllodes Tumor Resection Using a DIEP Flap

A phyllodes tumor of the breast is a rare neoplasm, accounting for 0.3%–1% of all breast cancers. The size is 4–5 cm on average but sometimes the tumor grows more and involves the entire breast. As for treatment, complete surgical resection is the standard for localized breast phyllodes tumors. The reconstruction of a large defect is challenging. Herein, we present a case where a deep inferior epigastric artery perforator (DIEP) flap was used in breast reconstruction for a 48-year-old woman who was suffering from a giant phyllodes tumor. Immediate reconstruction was performed after tumor excision; the specimen weighed 4,230 g and the skin defect was 22 × 24 cm. The deep inferior epigastric artery and vein were anastomosed to the right internal mammary artery and vein, and the superficial inferior epigastric vein was anastomosed to the right lateral thoracic vein. The postoperative course was uneventful and the DIEP flap survived completely. In the setting of the reconstruction for a large defect, we must make maximum use of the limited human tissue available and ensure minimum damage, while also considering the functional and aesthetic outcome of the donor site. Various ideas and technologies have been reported that can assist in achieving this goal, but few reports have commented especially on the reconstruction of giant phyllodes tumor using autologous tissues. There were some other options for the way of the reconstruction such as a latissimus dorsi flap and a rectus abdominis flap. Compared with these approaches, using a DIEP flap has some disadvantages such as the need for the microsurgical skill and the risk of postoperative hernia. However, a DIEP flap provides the enough tissue to cover the large defect without any damage of the muscle. To our knowledge, this case was the largest phyllodes tumor reconstruction ever, in terms of the amount of the skin needed and resected tissue involved. Although more studies and longer follow-up will be required in the future, this case may show the usefulness of DIEP flaps for reconstruction of a giant phyllodes tumor.

Intraoperative Laser Speckle Contrast Imaging in DIEP Breast Reconstruction: A Prospective Case Series Study

Introduction:

Laser speckle contrast imaging (LSCI) is a laser-based perfusion imaging technique that recently has been shown to predict ischemic necrosis in an experimental flap model and predicting healing time of scald burns. The aims were to investigate perfusion in relation to the selected perforator during deep inferior epigastric artery perforator (DIEP) flap surgery, and to evaluate LSCI in assisting of prediction of postoperative complications.

Methods:

Twenty-three patients who underwent DIEP-procedures for breast reconstruction at 2 centers were included. Perfusion was measured in 4 zones at baseline, after raising, after anastomosis, and after shaping the flap. The perfusion in relation to the selected perforator and the accuracy of LSCI in predicting complications were analyzed.

Results:

After raising the flap, zone I showed the highest perfusion (65 ± 10 perfusion units, PU), followed by zone II (58 ± 12 PU), zone III (53 ± 10 PU), and zone IV (45 ± 10 PU). The perfusion in zone I was higher than zone III (P = 0.002) and zone IV (P < 0.001). After anastomosis, zone IV had lower perfusion than zone I (P < 0.001), zone II (P = 0.01), and zone III (P = 0.02). Flaps with areas <30 PU after surgery had partial necrosis postoperatively (n = 4).

Conclusions:

Perfusion is highest in zone I. No perfusion difference was found between zones II and III. Perfusion <30 PU after surgery was correlated with partial necrosis. LSCI is a promising tool for measurement of flap perfusion and assessment of risk of postoperative ischemic complications.

Effect of a nondominant perforator on multiterritory perforator flap survival in rats

BACKGROUND

During flap surgery, the dominant perforator is usually selected as the pedicle. This study investigated the effect of a nondominant perforator on multiterritory perforator flap survival.

METHODS

The deep circumflex iliac artery perforator flap (DCIA flap) and intercostal artery perforator flap (ICA flap) were performed (n = 12). Only the pedicle was different between the two flaps. The DCIA flap was based on the right and peripheral DCIA with three dynamic and two potential perforasomes. The ICA flap was based on the right and central ICA with five dynamic perforasomes. All adjacent perforators were ligated except the pedicle. On postoperative day 7, flap viability, angiography findings, and perfusion were compared.

RESULTS

Even though the diameter of DCIA (mm) was larger than that of ICA (0.49 ± 0.03 vs. 0.4 ± 0.04; p < .05), the ICA flap survival rate (%) was higher than that of DCIA flap (99.5 ± 0.7 vs. 83.8 ± 3.9; p < .001). Based on a dominant perforator, a necrotic area was observed in the potential perforasomes of the DCIA flap. The choke vessels between the anatomical and dynamic perforasomes dilated postoperatively in the two flaps, whereas the others did not. The perfusion (PU) differences between the DCIA and ICA flaps in the dynamic perforasomes were nonsignificant (average, 342.4 ± 9.1 vs. 347.3 ± 7.3; p > .05).

CONCLUSION

Increasing the number of dynamic perforasomes had no effect on flap survival, even based on a nondominant perforator. And the pedicle position affected flap survival.

In-Vivo Quantitative Mapping of the Perforasomes of Deep Inferior Epigastric Artery Perforators

Background

There is limited understanding of anatomy of perforator angiosomes, or "perforasomes," of the deep inferior epigastric artery (DIEA). A perforasome is defined as the territory perfused by a single perforator vessel of a named artery, such as the DIEA. Given the clinical significance of this anatomical concept in microsurgical breast reconstruction, this study is a quantitative investigation of DIEA perforasome characteristics and patterns associated with perforasome size, perforator caliber, location and branching, using computed tomographic (CT) angiography.

Methods

Twenty abdominal arterial-phase CT angiograms were analyzed in 3 dimensions using software (Horos). DIEA perforasomes were mapped, yielding data on 40 medial-row and 40 lateral-row perforasomes. Perforator branch extents and number were measured using 3-dimensional multi-planar reconstruction, and perforator caliber on axial slices.

Results

Perforasomes exhibited eccentric branching distributions in horizontal and vertical axes, that is, a majority of perforators were not centrally located within their perforasomes. Lateral-row perforasomes displayed greater horizontal eccentricity than medial-row. There was a positive correlation between perforator caliber and perforasome size. Medial-row perforators had more branches and larger caliber than lateral-row.

Conclusions

This is the first article to quantify relationships between perforators and their territories of supply in vivo, augmenting current understanding of perforasome theory. DIEA perforasomes can be readily visualized and mapped with CT angiography, which may enable effective preoperative flap planning in DIEA perforator flap breast reconstruction. Future investigation may highlight the importance of this information in improving surgical outcomes, including flap survival and fat necrosis reduction, through careful, perforasome-based flap design.

Immediate implant replacement with DIEP flap: a single-stage salvage option in failed implant-based breast reconstruction

Background

Implant-based immediate breast reconstruction after skin-sparing mastectomy has shown a significant improvement in patients’ quality of life, making the procedure steadily more popular year after year. However, this technique has a high morbidity rate, including skin necrosis and implant exposure.

Methods

A retrospective review of a prospectively held database for autologous breast reconstruction in our institution of the last 5 years found eight cases with exposed implants after nipple-sparing mastectomy and immediate reconstruction. A single-stage procedure consisting on implant removal and immediate replacement with a deepithelialized DIEP flap was performed in all cases (10 DIEP flaps).

Results

All flaps were successful. Patients’ mean age was 45 years old. Three patients developed seroma (5, 7, and 14 days after surgery, respectively). No infections were detected in up to 24 months of follow-up.

Conclusions

Nipple-sparing mastectomy with immediate implant-based reconstruction is considered oncologically safe. However, it has a high rate of complications that could require implant removal. Immediate free flap reconstruction is a feasible and safe option to replace the missing volume with low risk of complications that result in a soft and natural-shaped breast.

Transposition of Myocutaneous Flaps in Breast Reconstruction following Radical Mastectomy: Latissimus Dorsi Vs. Rectus Abdominis Flap

We evaluated two homogeneous groups of patients (20 each) who had undergone radical mastectomy and who underwent breast reconstruction in our department by transposition of a latissimus dorsi or of a rectus abdominis myocutaneous flap. The results achieved were very similar (in terms of postoperative hospitalization, complication rate, thoracic symmetry). We therefore believe that both these techniques should be considered as first choice in breast reconstruction following radical mastectomy. However, from the aesthetic viewpoint, the use of the latissimus dorsi is best suited to tall, slim patients, whereas the rectus abdominis allows us to obtain better results in patients of sturdy build, with a voluminous residual breast.

A Quick Evaluation of TRAM Flap Viability using Fingerstall-Type Tissue Oximetry

Supplemental Digital Content is available in the text.

Lengthening the pedicle of the rectus abdominis myocutaneous flap for repair of upper chest and neck defects

INTRODUCTION The aim of this study was to investigate whether the pedicle of the rectus abdominis flap can be lengthened by resecting the inferior costal cartilage segments or associated muscle when repairing upper body defects. A formula was generated that calculates the expected increase in pedicle length. METHODS Thirty patients underwent computed tomography. The width and thickness of the third to seventh inferior costal cartilage segments as well as the width of the respective intercostal spaces were recorded. Four patients underwent reconstruction of an upper body defect with the relevant flap. RESULTS The expected mean increases in pedicle length were 4.07cm (standard deviation [SD]: 0.31cm) and 4.63cm (SD: 0.54cm) following resection of the left and right sides respectively of the seventh inferior costal cartilage segment, 7.99cm (SD: 0.49cm) and 10.82cm (SD: 0.23cm) following resection of the left and right sides respectively of the sixth and seventh inferior costal cartilage segments while resection of the fourth to seventh inferior costal cartilage segments would equate to increases of 17.48cm (SD: 0.62cm) and 22.05cm (SD: 0.21cm) for the left and right sides respectively. In four patients who required reconstruction, three flaps survived without problems but one flap developed partial necrosis. CONCLUSIONS Resecting inferior costal cartilage segments or associated muscle can lengthen the pedicle of the rectus abdominis flap for reconstruction of defects on the upper chest and neck.

Anatomic and physiological fundamentals for autologous breast reconstruction

The success of autologous tissue transfer is reliant on adequate blood supply and as we endeavour to tailor our reconstructive options through our flap choices and design. Autologous breast reconstruction has made substantial progress over the years and the evolution of refinements over the last 30 years has allowed flaps to be based on specific perforators. The ultimate goal of breast reconstruction following mastectomy is to match optimal tissue replacement with minimal donor-site expenditure. In parallel surgeons will seek ways to ensure safe flap design and harvest while maintaining predictability and reliable tissue perfusion. Better understanding of the vascular anatomy and physiology of the cutaneous circulation of soft tissues, and that of patterns of blood flow from individual perforator has provided insight to advance perforator flap harvest and modifications in flap design. The aim of this article is to review the principles of blood supply and flap design exemplified through common flaps used in autologous breast reconstructive surgery, to better understand approaches for safe flap harvest and transfer of well perfused tissue.

Optimizing the pedicled rectus abdominis flap: revised designs and vascular classification for safer procedures

BACKGROUND

The rectus abdominis myocutaneous (RAM) flap is one of the most commonly used flaps in reconstructive surgery, and many designs have been published. The transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous (TRAM), vertical rectus abdominis myocutaneous (VRAM), and oblique designs (ORAM) are the most common. The most frequent complication with these flaps is partial flap necrosis. We describe a new vascular zoning method and a revised classification of abdominal wall perfusion that is applicable when harvesting pedicled TRAM flaps to make them more secure.

METHODS

From February 2009 to February 2013, we performed 70 pedicled RAM flaps in 68 patients for breast reconstruction (79%) as well as pelvic and inguinal reconstruction after bowel and gynecologic tumor resection. Clinical data about cutaneous vascularization of the flaps along with before and after photos were prospectively collected and analyzed, and results were evaluated retrospectively. We collected observations on partial flap necrosis, reviewed the literature, and made design modifications to exclude doubtful vascular territories.

RESULTS

Of the total number of flaps, 59 were TRAMs, 7 were VRAMs, and 1 was an ORAM flap. Three combined horizontal and vertical flaps, or what we call TV RAM flaps, were performed. No flap-related complications were observed with VRAM, TV RAM, or ORAM flaps. Three instances of partial necrosis (in the same vascular territory) occurred with TRAM flaps; as a result, we changed our approach to these flaps and examined alternatives to the classical vascular zoning.

CONCLUSION

We discussed abdominal skin perfusion in accordance with the literature and based on our experience with harvesting pedicled RAM flaps. We proposed safer skin paddles made possible by adopting a revised vascular classification.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE V

This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266 .

In situ transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous flap: a rat model of myocutaneous ischemia reperfusion injury

Free tissue transfer is the gold standard of reconstructive surgery to repair complex defects not amenable to local options or those requiring composite tissue. Ischemia reperfusion injury (IRI) is a known cause of partial free flap failure and has no effective treatment. Establishing a laboratory model of this injury can prove costly both financially as larger mammals are conventionally used and in the expertise required by the technical difficulty of these procedures typically requires employing an experienced microsurgeon. This publication and video demonstrate the effective use of a model of IRI in rats which does not require microsurgical expertise. This procedure is an in situ model of a transverse abdominis myocutaneous (TRAM) flap where atraumatic clamps are utilized to reproduce the ischemia-reperfusion injury associated with this surgery. A laser Doppler Imaging (LDI) scanner is employed to assess flap perfusion and the image processing software, Image J to assess percentage area skin survival as a primary outcome measure of injury.

Abdominoplasty and thoraco-epigastric flaps for large anterior trunk defects after dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans wide resection: Two illustrative cases

INTRODUCTION

Excision of large dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans in the anterior aspect of the trunk often results in large surgical defects that frequently dictate the need for microsurgical reconstruction. However, this option is not always available.

PRESENTATION OF CASE

The authors describe two patients with very large anterior trunk dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans: one in the epigastric region and the other in the hypogastric region. In the patient with the hypogastric tumor, a classical abdominoplasty flap associated with umbilical transposition was used to cover the skin defect after muscle and fascial plication, and placement of a polypropylene mesh. In the patient with the epigastric tumor, a synthetic mesh was also placed, and the skin and subcutaneous defect was reconstructed with a reverse abdominoplasty flap and two thoraco-epigastric flaps. In both cases, complete closure was possible without immediate or late complications.

DISCUSSION

The local options described in this paper present several potential advantages compared to microsurgical reconstruction, namely they are easier and faster to perform and teach; they provide a good skin color and texture match; they are not associated with distant donor site morbidity; follow-up is usually less cumbersome; the post-operative hospital stay tends to be shorter; they are less costly; they are less prone to complete failure.

CONCLUSION

The authors believe that these two patients clearly show that local flaps, although frequently neglected, continue to be valid options for reconstructing large anterior trunk defects, even in the current era of microsurgery enthusiasm.

Preferred use of the ipsilateral pedicled TRAM flap for immediate breast reconstruction: an illustrated approach

BACKGROUND

Recent experience with the ipsilateral TRAM flap has shown that it has the advantage of a longer functional pedicle length, which allows tension-free inset of well-vascularized tissue into the breast pocket. This leads to better positioning and shaping of the reconstructed breast with minimal disruption of the inframammary fold. The purpose of this article was to provide an illustrated approach to the ipsilateral TRAM flap and to clarify the technique when applied in the context of immediate breast reconstruction following cancer extirpation.

METHODS

A prospective evaluation of 89 patients who underwent immediate breast reconstruction following skin-sparing mastectomy for breast cancer was performed. All patients underwent ipsilateral TRAM reconstruction. The innate insetting advantage of the ipsilateral TRAM flap is illustrated in the article. The key steps of the technique were as follows: (1) The ipsilateral corner of the flap was used as the axillary tail, leaving the more bulky part to form the main body of the breast; (2) To avoid undesirable twists, a right TRAM was rotated clockwise so that its apex points superiorly; (3) This flap was subsequently tunneled into the breast pocket while preserving the inframammary fold. The opposite maneuvers were done for the left side; (4) If the flap was congested, venous augmentation was performed where the tributary of the axillary vein or the thoracodorsal vein was anastomosed with the inferior epigastric vein from the flap with an interposed vein graft (17% of cases).

RESULTS

All flaps survived and flap-related complications included partial necrosis of tissue across the midline (2.2%), palpable fat necrosis (22%), and hematoma requiring drainage (2.2%). All flaps were raised concurrent with the resection, and the combined operative time ranged from 3.5 to 6 h, with a mean hospital stay of 7 days.

CONCLUSION

The ipsilateral TRAM flap was a reliable flap with low complication rates and short surgery time. It was our preferred choice for pedicled breast reconstruction in all cases, except for the ptotic breast or if abdominal scarring excludes its use.

Assessment of the abdominal wall function after pedicled TRAM flap surgery for breast reconstruction: Use of modified mesh repair for the donor defect

Background:

The pedicled TRAM flap has been a workhorse of autologous breast reconstruction for decades. However, there has been a rising concern about the abdominal wall donor site morbidity with the use of conventional TRAM flap. This has generally been cited as one of the main reasons for resorting to “abdominal wall friendly” techniques. This study has been undertaken to assess the abdominal wall function in patients with pedicled TRAM flap breast reconstruction. The entire width of the muscle and the overlying wide disk of anterior rectus sheath were harvested with the TRAM flap in all our patients and the anterior rectus sheath defect was repaired by a Proline mesh.

Materials and Methods:

Abdominal wall function was studied in 21 patients who underwent simultaneous primary unipedicled TRAM flap reconstruction after mastectomy for cancer. In all the patients, the abdominal wall defect was repaired using wide sheet of Proline mesh both as inlay and onlay. The assessment tools included straight and rotational curl ups and a subjective questionnaire. The abdominal wall was also examined for any asymmetry, bulge, or hernia. The minimal follow-up was 6 months postoperative. The objective results were compared with normal unoperated volunteers.

Results and Conclusions:

The harvesting the TRAM flap certainly results in changes to the anterior abdominal wall that can express themselves to a variable degree. A relatively high incidence of asymptomatic asymmetry of the abdomen was seen. There was total absence of hernia in our series even after a mean follow-up period of 15.5 months. A few patients were only able to partially initiate the sit up movement and suffered an important loss of strength. In most patients, synergists took over the functional movement but as the load increased, flexion and rotation performances decreased. The lack of correlation between exercise tests and the results of the questionnaire suggests that this statistically significant impairment was functionally not important. The patients encountered little or no difficulty in theis day-to-day activities. Our modification of use of a wide mesh as inlay and onlay repair minimizes the donor site morbidity. This also avoids maneuvers meant for primary closure of the rectus sheath defects, which can result in distortion of umbilicus. Therefore, in conclusion, the unipedicled TRAM flap should be regarded as a valuable option in breast reconstruction provided careful repair of the abdominal wall defect is undertaken using Proline mesh.