SSRI and mirtazapine in PTSD

Afraid and Awake: The Interaction Between Trauma and Sleep in Children and Adolescents

Traumatic experiences and sleep disturbances are both common in children and adolescents. Because of the reciprocal relationship between sleep complaints and trauma, a mental health evaluation should include not only an assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder and other trauma symptoms but also a specific evaluation of sleep-related complaints. Similarly, if a history of both trauma and sleep complaints is identified, an effective trauma-informed intervention, whether psychological, psychopharmacologic, or a combination of the two, should directly address sleep issues.

Afraid and Awake: The Interaction Between Trauma and Sleep in Children and Adolescents

Traumatic experiences and sleep disturbances are both common in children and adolescents. Because of the reciprocal relationship between sleep complaints and trauma, a mental health evaluation should include not only an assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder and other trauma symptoms but also a specific evaluation of sleep-related complaints. Similarly, if a history of both trauma and sleep complaints is identified, an effective trauma-informed intervention, whether psychological, psychopharmacologic, or a combination of the two, should directly address sleep issues.

Psychological impact of trauma on developing children and youth

All too often, children and adolescents are exposed to traumatic events that lead to physical injury in many cases, psychological perturbation in most cases, and enduring psychological reactions, notably posttraumatic stress disorder, in a minority of individuals. This sequence of events can affect later development, learning, emotions, and behavior. In the process of caring for the physical injury, it is important for the primary care practitioner (PCP) to correctly interpret these presentations and anticipate the need for specific assessments, immediate intervention, referral, and follow-up. This report provides the foundation for such actions on the part of the PCP.

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor use in the treatment of the pediatric non-obsessive-compulsive disorder anxiety disorders

The non-OCD (obsessive-compulsive disorder) anxiety disorders in the pediatric population- separation anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and social phobia and others- are arguably the most common psychiatric disorders in this age group. Anxiety disorders, in addition to being common, also significantly impair the affected child at home, school, and with peers. A small developing evidence base suggests the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the pharmacological treatment of choice for pediatric non-OCD anxiety disorders. In clinical trials, SSRIs are often very effective in reducing symptoms and improving functioning and generally well tolerated. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) review of the safety of antidepressants in the pediatric population suggest a small, but significant, increased relative risk for suicidality adverse events on antidepressant versus placebo. Despite the apparent increased risk, the larger magnitude of benefit of the SSRIs for pediatric non-OCD anxiety disorders compared to depression suggests the benefit/risk ratio for anxiety disorders is more favorable than that for depression. This paper will review available studies on the treatment of non-OCD childhood anxiety disorders with antidepressants, including the SSRIs, and discuss pertinent safety issues.

Adaptive and maladaptive psychobiological responses to severe psychological stress: implications for the discovery of novel pharmacotherapy

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is one of the few DSM-IV diagnoses contingent upon a psychosocial stressor. In this context, there is an urgent need to acquire a better understanding of both the adaptive and maladaptive psychobiological responses to traumatic stress. Preclinical investigators have utilized a variety of animal models to identify the behavioral and neurobiological features of the organism's response to stress. However, given the complexity of the healthy and pathological human response to physiological and psychological stress, the extent to which the animal data is immediately transferable to human remains to be fully determined. This review draws upon preclinical and clinical literature to examine the transformation of an adaptive human stress response into a maladaptive and debilitating mental disorder. An integrative psychobiological model for PTSD is presented, linking psychological processes and behavioral patterns with current findings in neurocircuitry, neurochemistry and psychophysiology. The implications of this model for the discovery of novel pharmacological approaches to the treatment of severe psychological distress are discussed.

Somatic treatment for depressive illnesses in children and adolescents

Numerous somatic interventions have been studied as potential treatments of depressive disorders in children and adolescents. These include antidepressant medications, light therapy, electro-convulsive therapy, and alternative therapies. The available evidence suggests that several somatic interventions hold promise as potentially safe and effective treatments for depressed youths; however, there is still much to be learned about these interventions. This article reviews what is known and what needs to be learned about the somatic treatment of pediatric depression.

Pharmacologic treatment approaches for children and adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder

Posttraumatic stress disorder is a common cause of morbidity in children and adolescents. The disorder in youth is similar to that in adults, with high rates of psychiatric comorbidity. Children seem to be more sensitive to the effects of trauma, and early life trauma exposure may induce a complex sequence of events that leads to the development of multiple psychiatric disorders in adulthood. The state of knowledge regarding medication treatments for children and adolescents is in the earliest stages of development. There are no well-conducted, randomized clinical trials to guide practitioners. Medication may play an important role in reducing debilitating symptoms of PTSD and providing a buffer for children while they confront difficult material in therapy and may help to improve their general functioning in day-to-day life. Given the various medications with potential usefulness in PTSD, it is helpful to use a stepwise approach to treatment. As a general principal, broad-spectrum agents, such as the SSRIs, are a good first choice. The SSRIs have efficacy in treating the core symptoms of PTSD and conditions such as the anxiety disorders and depression that commonly co-occur with PTSD. These agents also improve social and occupational functioning and an individual's perception of improved quality of life [41, 45, 46]. Although the SSRIs are generally effective for a broad spectrum of problems, clinicians should systematically monitor for the persistence of symptoms that do not respond to these agents. For example, despite significant improvements in core PTSD symptoms in one study that used sertraline, little improvement was seen in patients' comorbid anxiety and depressive symptoms [41]. This finding demonstrates the value of continuous symptom monitoring and shows that residual or comorbid symptoms may require a different medication to augment effective SSRI treatment for PTSD. A reasonable approach is to begin with a broad-spectrum agent, such as an SSRI, which should target anxiety, mood, and reexperiencing symptoms. Adrenergic agents, such as clonidine, used either alone or in combination with an SSRI may be useful when symptoms of hyperarousal and impulsivity are problematic. Supplementing with a mood stabilizer may be necessary in severe affective dyscontrol. Similarly, introduction of an atypical neuroleptic agent may be necessary in cases of severe self-injurious behavior, dissociation, psychosis, or aggression. Comorbid conditions such as ADHD should be targeted with pharmacotherapy known to be effective, such as psychostimulants or newer agents such as atomoxetine. Pharmacologic treatment of PTSD in childhood is one approach to alleviating the acute and chronic symptoms of the disorder. Despite the lack of well-designed, randomized, controlled trials that support efficacy, medication can be used in a rational and safe manner. Reduction in even one disabling symptom, such as insomnia or hyperarousal, may have a positive ripple effect on a child's overall functioning. Pharmacotherapy is typically used as one component of a more comprehensive multiple modality treatment package, including psychoeducation of the parent and child, focused exposure-based psychotherapy with adjunctive family therapy when indicated, and long-term booster interventions that use an admixture of psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral, and pharmacologic interventions.

Effects of mirtazapine in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder in Korea: a pilot study

This study was aimed at testing the efficacy and tolerability of mirtazapine in the treatment of Korean patients with chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Mirtazapine was administered for 8 weeks using a flexible-dose regime in 15 Korean patients with PTSD based on the DSM-IV criteria. We evaluated the patients at baseline and at weeks 4 and 8 after treatment with the interviewer-administered structured interview for PTSD (SIP), short PTSD rating interview (SPRINT), impact of event scale-revised (IES-R) and the Montgomery Asberg depression rating scale (MADRS). Scores on the SIP, SPRINT, IES-R and MADRS had significantly reduced after 8 weeks treatment. In this pilot study, mirtazapine was found to be effective and well tolerated in the treatment of patients with PTSD. This calls for further evaluation of the effect of this drug on subjects with PTSD with randomized placebo-controlled studies.