The vasoconstriction induced by endothelin-1 is mediated only by ET(A) receptors in mesenteric small resistance arteries of spontaneously hypertensive rats and Wistar Kyoto rats

Endothelin System in Hypertension and Chronic Kidney Disease

ET (endothelin) is a powerful vasoconstrictor 21-amino acid peptide present in many tissues, which exerts many physiological functions across the body and participates as a mediator in many pathological conditions. ETs exert their effects through ETA and ETB receptors, which can be blocked by selective receptor antagonists. ETs were shown to play important roles among others, in systemic hypertension, particularly when resistant or difficult to control, and in pulmonary hypertension, atherosclerosis, cardiac hypertrophy, subarachnoid hemorrhage, chronic kidney disease, diabetic cardiovascular disease, scleroderma, some cancers, etc. To date, ET antagonists are only approved for the treatment of primary pulmonary hypertension and recently for IgA nephropathy and used in the treatment of digital ulcers in scleroderma. However, they may soon be approved for the treatment of patients with resistant hypertension and different types of nephropathy. Here, the role of ETs is reviewed with a special emphasis on participation in and treatment of hypertension and chronic kidney disease.

A molecular signature in the pannexin1 intracellular loop confers channel activation by the α1 adrenoreceptor in smooth muscle cells

Both purinergic signaling through nucleotides such as ATP (adenosine 5'-triphosphate) and noradrenergic signaling through molecules such as norepinephrine regulate vascular tone and blood pressure. Pannexin1 (Panx1), which forms large-pore, ATP-releasing channels, is present in vascular smooth muscle cells in peripheral blood vessels and participates in noradrenergic responses. Using pharmacological approaches and mice conditionally lacking Panx1 in smooth muscle cells, we found that Panx1 contributed to vasoconstriction mediated by the α1 adrenoreceptor (α1AR), whereas vasoconstriction in response to serotonin or endothelin-1 was independent of Panx1. Analysis of the Panx1-deficient mice showed that Panx1 contributed to blood pressure regulation especially during the night cycle when sympathetic nervous activity is highest. Using mimetic peptides and site-directed mutagenesis, we identified a specific amino acid sequence in the Panx1 intracellular loop that is essential for activation by α1AR signaling. Collectively, these data describe a specific link between noradrenergic and purinergic signaling in blood pressure homeostasis.

Endothelin-1 and endothelin-2 initiate and maintain contractile responses by different mechanisms in rat mesenteric and cerebral arteries

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Endothelin (ET)-1 and ET-2 cause potent long-lasting vasoconstrictions by tight binding to smooth muscle ETA receptors. We tested the hypotheses that different mechanisms mediate initiation and maintenance of arterial contractile responses to ET-1 and ET-2 and that this differs among vascular beds.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Segments of rat mesenteric resistance artery (MRA) and basilar artery (BA) were studied in wire myographs with and without functional antagonists.

KEY RESULTS

Sensitivity and maximum of MRA contractile responses to ET-1 were not, or only moderately, reduced by stimulation of soluble GC, AC or K(+) -channels and by an inhibitor of receptor-operated ion channels. However, each of these reduced maintenance of ET-1 effects and relaxed ET-1-induced contractions in MRA. A calcium channel antagonist did not alter sensitivity, maximum and maintenance of ET-1 effects, but relaxed ET-1-induced contractions in MRA. A PLC inhibitor prevented contractile responses to ET-1 and ET-2 in MRA and BA, and relaxed ET-1- and ET-2-induced responses in MRA and ET-1 effects in BA. A Rho-kinase inhibitor did not modify sensitivity, maximum and maintenance of responses to both peptides in both arteries but relaxed ET-2, but not ET-1, effects in MRA and ET-1 effects in BA.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

PLC played a key role in arterial contractile responses to ETs, but ET-1 and ET-2 initiated and maintained vasoconstriction through different mechanisms, and these differed between MRA and BA. Selective functional antagonism may be considered for agonist- and vascular bed selective pharmacotherapy of ET-related diseases.

Muscular ETB receptors develop postnatally and are differentially distributed in specific segments of the rat vasculature

The endothelin/endothelin-receptor system is a key player in the regulation of vascular tone in mammals. We raised and characterized an antiserum against rat ETB receptor and investigated the distribution of ETB receptors in different vascular beds during postnatal development (day 0 through day 28) and in the adult rat. We report the tissue-specific and age-dependent presence of vasoconstrictor ETB receptors. At the time of birth, vascular smooth muscle cells from all tissues examined did not exhibit ETB receptor immunoreactivity. The occurrence of ETB receptor immunoreactivity in the postnatal development was time dependent and started in small coronary and meningeal arteries at day 5, followed by small mesenteric arteries as well as brachial artery and vein at day 14. At day 21, ETB receptors were present in the media of muscular segments of pulmonary artery, large coronary arteries, and intracerebral arterioles. At day 28, ETB receptor immunoreactivity was evident in interlobular renal arteries, vas afferens, and efferens. Large renal arteries, mesenteric artery, and elastic segments of pulmonary arteries, as well as coronary and mesenteric veins, did not exhibit ETB receptor immunoreactivity. These data demonstrate the age-dependent and tissue-specific presence of ETB receptors, mainly on arterial smooth muscle cells in the vascular system of the rat.

Comparison of the contractile and calcium-increasing properties of platelet-activating factor and endothelin-1 in the rat mesenteric artery and vein

In the present study, the properties of endothelin-1 (ET-1) and platelet-activating factor (PAF) in inducing contraction and increased intracellular-free calcium level in rat mesenteric arteries and veins were studied. Furthermore, measurements of cytosolic ([Ca](c)) and nuclear ([Ca](n)) Ca(2+) were performed by confocal microscopy. PAF, at a concentration of 1 microM, and the selective ET(B) agonists, IRL-1620 and sarafotoxin S6C (100 nM), induced a marked constriction and increase in [Ca](i) in the mesenteric vein but not in the artery. On the other hand, endothelin-1 (1 - 100 nM) induced a significant concentration-dependent nifedipine-insensitive increase in tension and [Ca](i) in both arteries and veins. Those responses to endothelin-1 were significantly reduced by the ET(A) receptor antagonist, BQ-123 (10(-6) M), on both types of vessels, whereas the selective ET(B) receptor antagonist, BQ-788, inhibited only the venous responses. The mixed ET(A)/ET(B) receptor antagonist, SB 209670, reduced the ET-1-induced venous responses to the same level of that found in presence of BQ-123 or BQ-788. However, concomitant applications of BQ-123 and BQ-788 reduced the vasoconstriction below to that induced by ET(A) or ET(B) blockade without further affecting [Ca](i). PAF and the selective ET(B) agonists IRL-1620, induced a sustained increase of [Ca](c) and [Ca](n) solely in venous cells and ET-1 in both arterial and venous smooth muscle cells. Thus, PAF increases total intracellular calcium concentration and tension on the smooth muscle cells from venous origin only. Furthermore, ET-1-induced vasoactive as well as [Ca](i) and [Ca](n) increasing effects are mediated by distinct receptors on venous and arterial smooth muscles.

An update on the status of endothelin receptor antagonists for hypertension

Endothelin receptor antagonists (ETRA) are actively developed by the pharmaceutical industry for several cardiovascular indications. In the context of hypertension, preclinical studies are increasingly focused on prevention or regression of end-organ damage and drug combination than on control of arterial pressure in monotherapy, as most experimental models have already been studied. In general, the antihypertensive effect of ETRA is limited but the overwhelming efficacy of this class of drugs to prevent several end-organ damages warrants judicious combination. However, the few studies looking at regression of hypertension-induced cardiovascular alterations proved less successful, suggesting that ETRA should be used early in the treatment of hypertension to obtain full benefit. Judging from the progression of ongoing trials and the development of new trials patients suffering from pulmonary hypertension and heart failure may be the first to benefit from this new class of drugs. However, it is expected that once on the market, responsive subsets of hypertensive patients will be identified and will benefit from end-organ protection.

Endothelial dysfunction in small resistance arteries of patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus

OBJECTIVE

Arterial hypertension is frequently associated with the presence of endothelial dysfunction in human subcutaneous small resistance arteries, as evaluated by responses to acetylcholine or bradykinin; however it is not known whether patients with diabetes mellitus show similar alterations. Therefore, we have investigated endothelial function in subcutaneous arteries of normotensive subjects (NT), of patients with essential hypertension (EH), of patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), as well as of patients with both essential hypertension and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM+EH).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

All subjects were submitted to a biopsy of the subcutaneous fat Small arteries were dissected and mounted on a micromyograph. The media to lumen ratio (M/L) was calculated. A concentration-response curve to acetylcholine, to bradykinin as well as to the endothelium-independent vasodilator sodium nitroprusside were performed. We also evaluated the contractile response to endothelin-1. Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) plasma levels were also measured.

RESULTS

The vasodilatation to acetylcholine and bradykinin (but not to sodium nitroprusside) was significantly and similarly reduced in EH, in NIDDM, and in NIDDM+EH compared with NT. The contractile response to endothelin-1 was similarly reduced in EH, in NIDDM and in NIDDM+EH. Plasma ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 concentrations were higher in EH, NIDDM and NIDDM+EH than in NT.

CONCLUSIONS

An evident endothelial dysfunction was detected in patients with NIDDM, and the simultaneous presence of EH did not seem to exert an additive effect. The contractile responses to endothelin-1 were reduced possibly as a consequence of ET(A) receptor down-regulation.

Structural alterations in subcutaneous small arteries of normotensive and hypertensive patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND

It is not presently known whether non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) is associated with the presence of structural alterations in small arteries or whether the combination of hypertension and NIDDM may have an additive effect on endothelial dysfunction. Therefore, we investigated subcutaneous small arteries in 12 normotensive subjects (NT group), 18 patients with essential hypertension (EH group), 13 patients with NIDDM, and 11 patients with NIDDM and EH (NIDDM+EH group).

METHODS AND RESULTS

Subcutaneous small arteries were evaluated by a micromyographic technique. The internal diameter, the media-to-lumen ratio, remodeling and growth indices, and the collagen-to-elastin ratio were calculated. Concentration-response curves to acetylcholine, bradykinin, the endothelium-independent vasodilator sodium nitroprusside, and endothelin-1 were performed. The media-to-lumen ratio was higher in the EH, NIDDM, and NIDDM+EH groups compared with the NT group. EH patients showed the presence of eutrophic remodeling, whereas NIDDM and NIDDM+EH patients showed 40% to 46% cell growth. The collagen-to-elastin ratio was significantly increased in the EH and NIDDM+EH groups compared with the NT group. The vasodilatation to acetylcholine and bradykinin was similarly reduced in EH, NIDDM, and NIDDM+EH groups compared with the NT group. The contractile responses to endothelin-1 were similarly reduced in EH, NIDDM, and NIDDM+EH patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that the effects of NIDDM and EH on small artery morphology are quantitatively similar but qualitatively different and that the presence of hypertension in diabetic patients has little additive effect on small artery morphology and none on endothelial dysfunction.

Effect of an ET(B)-selective and a mixed ET(A/B) endothelin receptor antagonist on venomotor tone in deoxycorticosterone-salt hypertension

OBJECTIVES

Because the ET(B) receptor is important in venoconstriction, we examined the effects of a selective ET(B) receptor antagonist (A-1 92621) and a mixed ET(A/B) receptor antagonist (A-182086) on endogenous endothelin-1 (ET-1) contributions to elevated venomotor tone in deoxycorticosterone acetate-salt (DOCA-salt) hypertension.

METHODS

Changes in venomotor tone were assessed using repeated measurements of mean circulatory filling pressure (MCFP) in awake, uninephrectomized, DOCA-salt-treated rats and uninephrectomized sham rats following intravenous (i.v.) injections of the ET(B) antagonist (12 mg/kg i.v.) or the ET(A/B) antagonist (12 mg/kg i.v.) alone, or 1 h before ganglion blockade with hexamethonium (30 mg/kg i.v.).

RESULTS

DOCA-salt rats were hypertensive and exhibited higher MCFP than sham normotensive rats. The ET(A/B) receptor antagonist lowered mean arterial blood pressure (MABP) in DOCA-salt and sham rats, but MCFP fell in DOCA-salt rats only. The ET(B) antagonist produced no changes in MCFP while MABP increased in both groups. Pre-treatment of DOCA-salt rats, but not sham rats, with either antagonist produced greater declines in MCFP following hexamethonium than after hexamethonium alone.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study confirms previous findings of elevated MCFP in DOCA-salt hypertensive rats compared to normotensive rats, but is the first to show that venomotor tone is affected by the actions of endogenous ET-1 acting at ET(B) receptors to modulate sympathetic input to the veins, as well as direct actions of ET-1 on vascular smooth muscle (VSM) ET(A) receptors. We also showed that mixed ET(A/B) receptor antagonism was effective in lowering MCFP and MABP in DOCA-salt hypertensive rats.

Endothelin-1 and relaxation of the rat aorta during pregnancy in nitroarginine-induced hypertension

In pregnant rats during hypertension induced by NO synthase inhibition, endothelin (ET) plasma levels are increased as in some preeclamptic women. Previously, the enhanced vasodepressor effect of endothelin-1 (ET-1) has been observed in this model, thus we decided to study the relaxation induced by ET-1 on the aorta. Non-pregnant or pregnant Wistar rats (n = 7 by group) were fed for 7 days (day 13-day 20) on a nitroarginine-enriched diet (L-NNA, 0.063% i.e. 30 mg/kg/day) or a control diet. Systolic blood pressure, measured by the tail cuff method on conscious rats at day 20 of gestation, was raised by the chronic L-NNA treatment (mean +/- s.e.m., mmHg, p < 0.001: pregnant L-NNA treated, 145 +/- 1.84 vs. pregnant control, 101 +/- 2.00 and non-pregnant L-NNA treated, 148 +/- 3.11 vs. non-pregnant control, 119 +/- 1.80). On day 20 ex vivo aortic ring relaxation was produced by ET-1 in vessels previously precontracted with norepinephrine only when endothelium was present. In control rats, ET-1 (10(-8) to 5 x 10(-8) M) produced a short but significant relaxation (mean value between 4 to 19%) followed by a long-lasting contracting phase, and a higher ET-1 concentration (10(-7) M) only produced contraction. Chronic L-NNA treatment decreased the level of relaxation (at least p < 0.05, in non-pregnant and pregnant rats) and with a 30 min L-NAME (10(-4) M) preincubation, relaxation was completely inhibited in non-pregnant and pregnant rats. BQ-123, an ETA receptor antagonist, did not produce any effect on ET-1 induced relaxation. BQ-788, an ETB receptor antagonist, significantly decreased it. In conclusion, in female rats, as in male rats, ET-1 induces a transient relaxation in the preconstricted aorta which involves endothelial ETB receptors. Despite a decrease in the systemic vascular reactivity during late gestation, the vasodilating and vasoconstricting properties of ET-1 on the aorta are not changed.