Survival of free tissue transfer following internal jugular venous thrombosis

The Autonomization Principle in Vascularized Flaps: An Alternative Strategy for Composite Tissue Scaffold In Vivo Revascularization

Autonomization is a physiological process allowing a flap to develop neo-vascularization from the reconstructed wound bed. This phenomenon has been used since the early application of flap surgeries but still remains poorly understood. Reconstructive strategies have greatly evolved since, and fasciocutaneous flaps have progressively replaced muscle-based reconstructions, ensuring better functional outcomes with great reliability. However, plastic surgeons still encounter challenges in complex cases where conventional flap reconstruction reaches its limitations. Furthermore, emerging bioengineering applications, such as decellularized scaffolds allowing a complex extracellular matrix to be repopulated with autologous cells, also face the complexity of revascularization. The objective of this article is to gather evidence of autonomization phenomena. A systematic review of flap autonomization is then performed to document the minimum delay allowing this process. Finally, past and potential applications in bio- and tissue-engineering approaches are discussed, highlighting the potential for in vivo revascularization of acellular scaffolds.

Autonomization of pectoralis major flap in head and neck surgery

The pectoralis major flap (PMF) is one of the most used pedicled flaps for reconstructive surgery in head and neck. Basing on previous studies observing that a vascular accident or pedicle ligation not always resulted in necrosis of free flaps, sometimes after a short critical period, we describe the possibility to perform the division of the PMF pedicle. The autonomization of PMF is based on the hypothesis that the flap, after a critical period, develops a neoangiogenesis at the free portion in the recipient site. It represents a possible choice in selected patients with relapse or second tumour of the oral floor and/or mobile tongue, who have been already treated with PMF reconstruction. We provide a step-by-step description of the autonomization and use of the modified PMF. Moreover, we reported advantages and pitfalls. The modified PMF represents a safe reconstructive choice for patients advised against a free flap or a second pedicled flap, with good surgical outcomes.

Internal jugular vein thrombosis and pulmonary thromboembolism after head and neck reconstructive surgery

BACKGROUND

Free flap failure secondary to internal jugular vein thrombosis (IJVT) is a significant complication after head and neck reconstructive surgery. A consensus has not yet been reached among reconstructive surgeons regarding the treatment of IJVT.

METHODS

We retrospectively evaluated the incidence of IJVT in 118 patients who underwent free flap reconstruction at Hyogo Cancer Center, Akashi, Japan. The occurrence of IJVT-related flap circulation crisis and pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE) was studied. This study was approved by the institutional ethics committee, and written informed consent was obtained from each patient.

RESULTS

From 118 patients who underwent head and neck reconstructive surgery, we included 116 internal jugular veins (IJVs) preserved after neck dissection in the present study. IJVT was confirmed in 25 (21.6%) IJVs from 23 patients. One patient (0.8%) developed venous congestion due to IJVT, which resulted in total flap necrosis. Two patients (1.7%) exhibited PTE associated with IJVT. They were treated with direct oral anticoagulants for 3 months and were discharged without any sequelae.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that IJVT after head and neck reconstructive surgery caused not only flap circulation crisis but also PTE. Reconstructive surgeons should be aware of the potential risks due to serious complications associated with IJVT.

End-to-end versus end-to-side venous microanastomoses in head and neck reconstruction

Venous thrombosis (VT) is the primary reason for microvascular free flaps (MFFs) failure. Different series have addressed the influence of venous anastomosis, end-to-end (ETE) vs. end-to-side (ETS), on this issue in head and neck (HN) microsurgery, but a consensus about the optimal technique to be adopted is still lacking. The aim of this study is to prospectively compare the venous complication rates of ETE and ETS techniques in 422 homogeneously treated patients who underwent MFF for HN oncologic defects between 2000 and 2012 at our Institution. Patients were divided into two groups: Group A (n = 269 patients) receiving an ETE and Group B (n = 153) an ETS venous anastomosis. The choice between the type of venous anastomosis was based on the several variables: availability of adequate caliber recipient veins in the neck, length and caliber of the donor vein, geometry and orientation of the vascular pedicle, and possibility to create a tensionless anastomosis. An ETE anastomosis was always preferred when feasible, while an ETS (performed on the internal jugular vein) was reserved to cases in which the abovementioned considerations contraindicated an ETE. Overall, the MFF failure rate was 3%. Among the 13 failures, five had VT (1.1%): three had received an ETE, and two an ETS. Venous anastomosis re-exploration and failure rates of the two groups were compared by the Chi-squared test showing no statistically significant differences. In conclusion, our data show how ETS venous anastomosis is a safe alternative to ETE whenever the latter cannot be properly accomplished for the previously mentioned contraindications.

[Early surgical revision as a salvage procedure in the anterolateral thigh flap failure prevention--case report]

Microsurgical free flaps are considered state of the art in head and neck reconstruction after composite tumor resections. The anterolateral thigh (ALT) flap is frequently used in ablative head and neck surgery, providing superior functional and aesthetic restoration with a minor donor-site morbidity. However, flap failures do occur occasionally, vascular obstruction within first 24 postoperative hours is one of the main reasons of flap compromise. We present a case report of an early surgical exploration as a successful salvage procedure for ALT flap used for reconstruction of the massive scalp excision due to basal cell carcinoma.

Go for the jugular: a 10-year experience with end-to-side anastomosis to the internal jugular vein in 320 head and neck free flaps

Preferential use of end-to-side anastomosis to the internal jugular vein in head and neck reconstruction offers distinct advantages and has consistently yielded excellent outcomes. Presented is a series of 320 consecutive cases by a single surgeon at 1 institution over 10 years. The most common flaps employed were the rectus (33%), forearm (28%), and fibula (21%) flaps. The most common defects were the mandible +/- floor of mouth (27%), pharyngoesophagus (25%), and tongue or cheek (17% each). Minor wound-healing problems, infection, and hematoma were noted in 5% or less. Partial flap loss was seen in 2%. Total flap loss and arterial or venous thrombosis occurred in less than 1% of patients. The size, constant anatomy, patency, and possibility for multiple anastomoses make use of the internal jugular vein very advantageous. Kinking is not observed when the neck is rotated, and high patency rates can be expected.

Selection of recipient vessels in microsurgical free tissue reconstruction of head and neck defects

The development of microsurgical techniques has facilitated proper management of extensive head and neck defects and deformities. Bone or soft tissue can be selected to permit reconstruction with functional and aesthetic results. However, for free tissue transfer to be successful, proper selection of recipient vessels is as essential as the many other factors that affect the final result. In this article selection strategies for recipient vessels for osteocutaneous free flaps, soft tissue free flaps, previously dissected and irradiated areas, recurrent and subsequent secondary reconstructions, simultaneous double free flap transfers in reconstruction of extensive composite head and neck defects, and the selection of recipient veins are reviewed in order to provide an algorithm for the selection of recipient vessels for head and neck reconstruction.

Salvage operations of free tissue transfer following internal jugular venous thrombosis: a review of 4 cases

The internal jugular vein (IJV) is used as the optimal recipient for free-tissue transfer in reconstruction following modified radical neck dissection. Some reports documented rare cases of flap compromise following IJV thrombosis, but large sample studies are few. We present cases of emergent exploration and an analysis of factors to improve salvage rates of compromise due to IJV thrombosis. From a survey of 756 patients, four developed congestion due to IJV thrombosis and returned to the operating room. A restrospective analysis was made from the case records. This represents a rate of 0.5% for the entire series. Three flaps survived,and one failed. Detection of compromise ranged from 7-25 h postoperatively. All four IJVs recovered to provide adequate drainage after thrombectomy. While flap compromise following IJV thrombosis is rare, careful observation and early exploration are crucial for salvage, as in other microvascular venous crises.

Management of flaps with compromised venous outflow in head and neck microsurgical reconstruction

Microvascular tissue transfer has become an indispensable procedure for head and neck reconstruction. Although remarkable progress has been made technically, anastomosed vessel occlusion is still a serious complication. Even with technically skilled microsurgeons, anastomosed vessel occlusion occurs because the technique is not the sole prophylaxis against thrombosis in microsurgery. Therefore, to minimize the possibility of an unfavorable result in microsurgery, microsurgeons must be familiar with management options for a vascular compromised flap. Most investigators have agreed that venous obstruction occurs more often than arterial obstruction. Here, we reviewed the published literature on the salvage of venous compromised flaps from the viewpoints of surgical correction, including reanastomosis and catheter thrombectomy, and nonsurgical procedures, such as a medicinal leech, hyperbaric oxygen, and thrombolytic therapy.

Internal jugular vein occlusion in head and neck microsurgical reconstruction

The internal jugular vein has been the preferred recipient vein in head and neck microsurgical reconstruction. However, recent reports have demonstrated internal jugular vein occlusion after functional neck dissection. The purpose of this article is to demonstrate and discuss the possibility of recipient internal jugular vein occlusion after free tissue transfer. Of 58 patients who received an end-to-side venous anastomosis with the internal jugular vein, four cases of recipient internal jugular vein occlusion were detected during the early postoperative period. Although the success rate of end-to-side anastomosis with the internal jugular vein may be high, microsurgeons should be aware of the possibility of internal jugular vein occlusion.

Internal jugular vein versus external jugular vein anastamosis: Implications for successful free tissue transfer

BACKGROUND

Microvascular free flaps are becoming the reconstructive option of choice for many head and neck defects. Many previous studies have examined factors predicting free flap survival. No study has compared differences in free flap survival when anastomosed to the internal or external jugular systems.

METHODS

Retrospective review of all free flaps performed at an academic medical center by a single head and neck microvascular surgeon during the period July 1995 to December 1999. Flaps were closely monitored postoperatively and taken back to the operating room urgently for arterial insufficiency or venous congestion.

RESULTS

On hundred fifty-six free flaps were performed during this time period. Sixty-five free flaps were anastomosed to the external jugular (EJ) vein and 86 to the IJ system (62 to the proximal common facial vein, 17 end-side on the IJ, and 7 to other branches). Five had either two venous anastomoses or were anastomosed to other veins and were excluded from statistical analysis. Six (4%) vascular thromboses occurred; 5 were venous and 1 arterial. Success by group was 99% for IJ anastomosis (1 arterial thrombosis) and 92% for EJ anastomosis (5 venous thromboses, p =.03). Urgent anastomotic revision and reperfusion salvaged 5 of the 6 flaps (overall success 99%).

CONCLUSIONS

Although the overall success rate (96% success with 99% success with salvage) is comparable to other large series, microvascular free flaps anastomosed to the external jugular vein failed at a significantly higher rate than those anastomosed to the IJ system. This suggests that the IJ system should be used as a recipient vessel when feasible.