Obstructive lung disease after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation

Bacterial Pathogens Causing Pneumonia Post Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplant: The Chronic GVHD Population

Allogeneic stem cell transplantation is a lifesaving treatment for many malignancies. Post-transplant patients may suffer from graft versus host disease in the acute and/or the chronic form(s). Post-transplantation immune deficiency due to a variety of factors is a major cause of morbidity and mortality. Furthermore, immunosuppression can lead to alterations in host factors that predisposes these patients to infections. Although patients who receive stem cell transplant are at an increased risk of opportunistic pathogens, which include fungi and viruses, bacterial infections remain the most common cause of morbidity. Here, we review bacterial pathogens that lead to pneumonias specifically in the chronic GVHD population.

Risk Factors for Bronchiolitis Obliterans in Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem-Cell Transplantation for Leukemia

STUDY OBJECTIVES

Reported risk factors for bronchiolitis obliterans (BO) in allogeneic hematopoietic stem-cell transplant recipients come from modest-sized studies and are limited to experiences of single institutions. We sought to identify risk factors for BO using data from the International Bone Marrow Transplant Registry.

METHODS

Registry data on 6,275 adult patients with leukemia who received human leukocyte antigen-identical sibling transplants from 1989 to 1997 and survived at least 100 days after transplantation were evaluated for the study. Risk factors for BO were analyzed using proportional hazards regression.

RESULTS

Seventy-six patients were found to have BO, with an incidence rate of 1.7% at 2 years after transplantation. The Kaplan-Meier estimate of median time to onset of BO was 431 days. Histologic evaluation was performed in 36 patients (47%). In 28 patients (37%), diagnosis was based on pulmonary function tests, CT scans of the chest, or a combination of both. On multivariate analysis, the factors that were associated with an increased risk for BO included the following: peripheral blood-derived stem cell, a busulfan-based conditioning regimen, interval from diagnosis to transplant > or = 14 months, female donor to male recipient sex match, prior interstitial pneumonitis, and an episode of moderate-to-severe acute graft-vs-host disease (GVHD).

CONCLUSION

In addition to corroborating previously reported risk factors, such as acute GVHD and a busulfan-based conditioning regimen, we found that peripheral blood stem-cell transplantation, long duration to transplant, female donor to male recipient, and a prior episode of interstitial pneumonitis are associated with an increased risk for BO.

Non-infectious pulmonary complications after bone marrow transplantation

Bone marrow transplantation (BMT) is a successful and recognised treatment option for patients with a number of haematological and non-haematological malignant and non-malignant conditions. Pulmonary complications both infectious and non-infectious are common after BMT. Multiple factors are thought to contribute to pulmonary complications, including the type and duration of immunological defects produced by the underlying disease and treatment, the development of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), and the conditioning regimens employed. These complications are classified as early or late, depending on whether they occur before or after 100 days from transplantation. Early non-infectious pulmonary complications typically include pulmonary oedema, upper airway complications, diffuse alveolar haemorrhage, cytolytic thrombi, and pleural effusion. Bronchiolitis obliterans, veno-occlusive disease, and secondary malignancies occur late after BMT. Idiopathic pneumonia syndrome, GVHD, and radiation induced lung injury can occur in early or late period after BMT.

Bronchiolitis obliterans presenting as subcutaneous emphysema and pneumomediastinum: a case report

We describe a woman post allogeneic bone marrow transplantation (BMT), who presented to the emergency room with subcutaneous emphysema and pneumomediastinum as the first manifestation of bronchiolitis obliterans complicating mild chronic graft versus host disease (GVHD). In contrast to other patients with pneumomediastinum described in the literature, this patient suffered from only mild GVHD. She did not receive methotrexate as GVHD prophylaxis, and the pneumomediastinum was a presenting manifestation rather than a terminal event. In addition, this is the first description of subcutaneous emphysema with this setting. Therefore, bronchiolitis obliterans should be highly suspected in post-BMT patients presenting with pneumomediastinum and subcutaneous emphysema, and prompt therapy should be initiated.

Pulmonary function changes in long-term survivors of bone marrow transplantation

PURPOSE

This study was undertaken to evaluate long-term pulmonary function changes in patients undergoing bone marrow transplantation (BMT), to assess their clinical significance, and to identify factors influencing these changes.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Pulmonary function tests (PFT) were evaluated before and after BMT in 111 adult patients undergoing BMT between 1985 and 1991. Forced expiratory volume at 1 s (FEV1), forced vital capacity (FVC), diffusing capacity (DLCO), and total lung capacity (TLC) were evaluated. One hundred and three patients (92.8%) received total body irradiation (TBI) to a total dose of 14 Gy in nine equal fractions. The lung dose was restricted to < 6.5 Gy in 95% of patients with partial transmission lung shielding. Seventy-eight percent of patients had acute graft-versus-host disease (aGVHD), 69% chronic graft-vs.-host disease (cGVHD), and 63% posttransplant pulmonary infection. Effects of GVHD, TBI, radiation dose to the lungs, dose rate of TBI, posttransplant pulmonary infection, Busulfan use for conditioning, age, and history of smoking were evaluated for their influence on pulmonary function.

RESULTS

Posttransplant FEV1, FVC, and TLC were lower than pretransplant values (p < 0.05) at 6 months and 1 year posttransplant with subsequent recovery. DLCO was significantly lower at all posttransplant intervals. FEV1 did not fall significantly in patients without acute or chronic GVHD and recovered earlier than in patients without posttransplant pulmonary infection. Recovery of FVC, TLC, and DLCO was also delayed in patients with acute and chronic GVHD and posttransplant pulmonary infection. Multiple regression analysis revealed an association between a higher radiation dose to the lungs, and decreased FVC at 2 years (p = 0.01). Progressive obstructive pulmonary disease was not observed.

CONCLUSION

An initial decline in PFTs with subsequent recovery was observed. Factors associated with delayed recovery and incomplete recovery of PFTs were GVHD, posttransplant pulmonary infection, and higher radiation dose to the lungs. The conditioning regimen used at Medical College of Wisconsin, including relatively high TBI doses with partial transmission pulmonary shielding, appears to be well tolerated by the lungs in long-term survivors. No progressive decline in PFTs or symptomatic decline in pulmonary function was observed during the time interval studied.

Pulmonary complications of bone marrow transplantation: the impact of variations in total body irradiation parameters

In this article we report and discuss the pulmonary complications in patients who received a single exposure total body irradiation (TBI) to a total dose of 7.5 Gy at a dose rate of 0.15 Gy/min, a TBI regimen which has the advantage of being given in a single, relatively short exposure, with an active treatment time of less than 1 hour. This forms a part of the bone marrow transplantation programme for the management of certain haematological malignancies at the Leicester Regional Centre. Between July 1986 and October 1990, we treated 31 patients with such a regimen. Full respiratory function tests (RFT) were carried out, prior to TBI, in the majority of patients. After a mean follow-up period of 34 months, 13 patients were alive; full RFT were repeated in all of them. Of the total of 31 patients, only one patient died, from late non-specific pneumonitis; in this case, high dose busulphan was added to conventional cyclophosphamide and TBI. Another patient died as a direct result of cytomegalovirus pneumonia. Comparison of pre- and post-TBI RFT showed no resultant obstructive, restrictive or transfer factor defects. In the three patients who did not have pre-TBI RFT, post-TBI RFT did not reveal any significant change from expected values for age, sex and height. Several major centres have reported their experience using various combinations of different total doses, dose rates and fractionations. Having compared our results with theirs, we conclude that, following this relatively short and convenient single exposure TBI, there is no evidence of increased acute or chronic pulmonary toxicity.

Analysis of airflow obstruction by bronchoalveolar lavage following bone marrow transplantation. Implications for pathogenesis and treatment

The development of airflow obstruction, most often due to bronchiolitis, is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in recipients of allogeneic BMT. Current consensus holds that this airways disease is the result of chronic GVHD and/or CMV infection. However, recent studies of idiopathic forms of BRO have demonstrated a striking influx of neutrophils into the lungs of affected individuals. Reasoning that the immune cell populations involved in tissue injury associated with either CGVHD or CMV infection would consist predominantly of lymphocytes, we tested this hypothesis by performing BAL in 12 adults with minimal or absent smoking histories who developed significant airflow obstruction (FEV1/FVC = 80.7 +/- 1 percent preBMT and 56.8 +/- 2.4 percent postBMT; p less than 0.001) following allogeneic BMT. Eleven of 12 patients had evidence of chronic, stable GVHD at the time of the study. In contrast to non-BMT patients with BRO, BAL defined two distinct patterns of lung inflammation in the BMT patients with airflow obstruction: (a) neutrophil predominance (five patients; neutrophil percentage = 20.2 +/- 6.6 percent); and (b) lymphocyte predominance (three patients; lymphocyte percentage = 35.9 +/- 12.1 percent). These data suggest that the pattern of inflammation in the lungs of BMT patients with BRO is not uniform and is not associated with active microbial infection. From these results, it is inferred that the airways injury in BMT patients may reflect diverse pathogenetic mechanisms initiated in the context of CGVHD and cytotoxic drug therapy.

A prospective study of airway reactivity before bone marrow transplantation

The purposes of this study were to assess baseline airway function and to determine the frequency of airway reactivity in patients before bone marrow transplantation (BMT). The ratio of the forced expiratory volume at 1 second to the forced vital capacity (FEV1/FVC) was the measure of baseline airflow. Using methacholine challenge, we tested 53 patients before conditioning chemotherapy, total-body irradiation, and BMT. All patients had a baseline FEV1/FVC of 70% or more. The mean baseline FEV1/FVC was 84(+)/- 6%. The response to methacholine challenge was defined by the change in FEV1 from baseline (delta FEV1). A positive response (delta FEV1 of 20% or more) occurred in 11 of 53 patients (21%), a borderline response of (delta FV1 of less than 20% but greater than or equal to 10%) was was found in 10 (19%), and no response (Delta FEV1 of less than 10%) was elicited in 32 (60%). In our group of patients with a positive or borderline response to methacholine, we found no significant relationship to baseline FEV1/FVC, smoking history, hematologic diagnosis or study, or major post-BMT pulmonary complications including bronchiolitis obliterans. We concluded that pretransplantation airway reactivity, as measured by methacholine challenge and in the setting of normal baseline FEV1/FVC, was common before BMT. The presence of a borderline or positive response to methacholine challenge before transplantation was not associated with the development of either clinical or pathologically proven posttransplantation bronchiolitis obliterans.

Longitudinal changes in pulmonary function following bone marrow transplantation

We prospectively followed a well characterized cohort of patients post-bone marrow transplantation for changes in pulmonary function. Thirty-four recipients without respiratory symptoms were available for follow up with a mean of two years. Spirometry and other measures of lung volume were well preserved following bone marrow transplantation. A progressive 11.9 percent decline in percent predicted diffusing capacity per year occurred. Age, cigarette smoking, type of cytoreductive therapy, type of GVHD prophylaxis, and the occurrence of AGVHD did not affect longitudinal changes in pulmonary function. Patients receiving transplants for CML developed a highly significant fall in diffusing capacity. Asymptomatic patients with CGVHD developed evidence of progressive obstructive ventilatory impairment. This suggests a subclinical spectrum of patients who may progress to the development of bronchiolitis obliterans and respiratory failure post-bone marrow transplantation.

Immunoglobulin therapy in bone marrow transplantation

Following ablative treatment with supralethal doses of chemotherapy and total body irradiation, patients demonstrate multiple immunologic deficiencies after bone marrow transplantation. Immune function usually recovers and the risk of infection decreases within six to 12 months. However, patients in whom chronic graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) develops have persisting B and T cell abnormalities, and in vivo and in vitro studies show impaired immunoglobulin regulation and function despite normal levels of serum immunoglobulin G. This review summarizes 12 published clinical trials of immunoglobulin therapy to correct immunodeficiency and prevent infection after marrow grafting. In five controlled studies, cytomegalovirus infection developed in a total of 52 of 172 (30 percent) immunoglobulin recipients and 71 of 165 (43 percent) control patients not given globulin. In four controlled trials, interstitial pneumonia developed in a total of 21 of 127 (17 percent) immunoglobulin recipients and 40 of 94 (43 percent) control patients. Three randomized trials reported a reduced rate of GVHD or post-engraftment septicemia in immunoglobulin recipients. However, methods of immunoglobulin preparation, antibody titer, and dose and schedule of prophylaxis varied widely in these studies, as did other critical patient, transplant regimen, and supportive care factors. Accordingly, data should be interpreted with caution. Ongoing controlled clinical trials will further define the proper role of immunoglobulin therapy in bone marrow transplantation.

Lung function changes after allogenic bone marrow transplantation

The lung function of 21 patients with leukaemia (11 with acute myeloid leukaemia, six with acute lymphatic leukaemia, four with chronic myeloid leukaemia) and of five with severe aplastic anaemia was tested before and after allogenic bone marrow transplantation. Vital capacity (VC) was lowered in patients with leukaemia before transplantation. VC and FEV1 fell significantly after transplantation. Residual volume (RV) and RV as a percentage of total lung capacity (RV % TLC) were already increased and rose significantly after transplantation. Patients with severe aplastic anaemia had noticeably increased RV and RV % TLC, values that did not change after transplantation. In contrast to the patients with aplastic anaemia, the patients with leukaemia had significantly reduced VC, RV, RV % TLC, and FEV1 before and after transplantation. The specific airway resistance (sRaw) was raised significantly before and after transplantation in the leukaemic patients. In addition, transfer coefficient (Kco) fell significantly more after transplantation in the patients with leukaemia than in those with severe aplastic anaemia. In three patients with histologically established obstructive bronchiolitis in conjunction with chronic graft versus host disease after transplantation, VC, FEV1 and FEV1 % VC fell, while RV, RV % TLC, and sRaw rose; Kco was far below normal. On the basis of these findings it is concluded that in patients with leukaemia obstructive disorders of ventilation develop or, if they are already present, worsen. In patients with severe aplastic anaemia lung function was not impaired in the early phase after transplantation. These differences are probably due to the more intensive immunosuppressive and cytotoxic preparatory regimen before transplantation in the leukaemic patients. Obstructive bronchiolitis, a complication of graft versus host disease, first manifests itself in a typical rise in specific airway resistance and must be treated early.

Lung diseases after bone marrow transplantation. Results of a clinical, radiological, histological, immunological and lung function study

The case histories of 72 subsequently treated patients - 44 with acute leukemia, 10 with chronic myeloid leukemia, 16 with severe aplastic anemia and 2 with neuroblastoma - were analyzed after bone marrow transplantation (BMT) with respect to pulmonary diseases. Thirty-eight patients suffered from a total of 51 pulmonary complications, which led to death in 20. Of 13 patients, 3 died of bacterial pneumonia, all of them during granulocytopenia; 2 of 6 patients died of fungal pneumonia and 2 out of 3 of a mixed bacterial-mycotic infection. Adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) led to death in 2 patients. A granulocyte count under 500/microliter correlated significantly (P less than 0.002) with the fatal outcome of bacterial, fungal and ARDS pneumonia as well as with bronchitis. Viral pneumonia led to death in 8 of 9 patients; in each there was a significant correlation (P less than 0.05) with graft-versus-host disease (GvHD). Patients with repeated episodes of pulmonary illness had significantly more chronic GvHD (P less than 0.05); several of these patients displayed a reduction in helper T cells and an increase in suppressor T cells in the peripheral blood. The natural killer (NK) cells were reduced and the percentage of activated NK cell level lay between 6% and 69%. B-cells were absent or deficient. These findings explain in part the absence of specific antibody reactivity. Five of these patients also contracted GvHD-associated obstructive bronchiolitis, which did not respond to therapy. Pulmonary infiltrates of unknown origin (including idiopathic interstitial pneumonia) occurred in 8 of the patients (11.1%), with a fatal outcome in 3 patients. Significant changes (P less than 0.05) in lung function after BMT appeared in the form of reduced vital capacity (VC) increased residual volume (RV) and an increase in RV expressed as the percentage of total lung capacity. Pulmonary diseases were the most common complication and cause of death in our patients after BMT.

Pulmonary disease in the immunocompromised host. 1

With few exceptions, pulmonary complications in the immunocompromised host will proceed to death unless the clinician intercedes. The differential diagnosis of diffuse pulmonary disease in this setting includes (1) infection, most commonly from opportunistic organisms; (2) recurrence or extension of the basic underlying disease process to involve the lungs; (3) adverse pulmonary reaction to drugs; (4) a new, unrelated disease process such as cardiac pulmonary edema or pulmonary emboli; and (5) any combination of these categories. Up to a third of these patients have two or more complications, such as pneumonitis from two different opportunistic organisms or an opportunistic infection and a drug-induced pulmonary complication. An understanding of the host defense that is compromised enables the clinician to narrow the differential diagnosis. The most common types of impairment of defense mechanisms are reductions in the number of granulocytes, B-lymphocytes, or T-lymphocytes, and not uncommonly, two or all three of these types of cells are involved. Impairment of each of these cell types is associated with an increased frequency of infection by a particular group of organisms. Consequently, the clinician can be somewhat selective if empiric therapy is being considered. In the immunocompromised patient, most pulmonary complications, including drug-induced pulmonary disease and pulmonary emboli, are associated with fever that mimics an infection. Up to 25% of the pulmonary complications in these patients are noninfectious.

Bronchiolitis obliterans after bone marrow transplantation

Bronchiolitis obliterans occurred in the setting of chronic graft-versus-host disease 1 year after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation for chronic myelogenous leukemia. The severe obstructive pulmonary disease followed an episode of interstitial pneumonitis. The etiology and possible relationship to graft-versus-host disease of this rare pulmonary lesion following bone marrow transplantation are discussed.

Pulmonary complications of bone marrow transplantation

Bone marrow transplantation (BMT) for hematologic disorders is potentially curative in selected persons. These patients may be immunocompromised for months after engraftment as a consequence of chemotherapy, irradiation, acute and chronic graft-vs-host disease (GVHD), and maturing recipient marrow. Pulmonary complications commonly occur during the early and late periods after BMT and are associated with significant morbidity and mortality. The leading early-onset complication is interstitial pneumonitis, most commonly associated with cytomegalovirus infection but also related to possible toxicities from chemotherapy and irradiation. Major late-onset problems include bacterial sinopulmonary infections and obstructive airway disease thought to be associated with chronic GVHD. The exact mechanisms of lung injury are probably quite complex, and unfortunately, often cause irreversible pulmonary disease, even in the patient who has had successful transplantation. Antimicrobial prophylaxis, modified chemotherapy and irradiation dosages, and antiviral immunization have been shown to reduce the incidence of early-onset pulmonary problems. Early recognition and treatment of late-onset problems will, it is hoped, minimize respiratory limitations.

Mycobacterial pulmonary infections after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation

Allogeneic bone marrow transplant recipients are prone to pulmonary infections caused by a wide spectrum of organisms. Nonetheless, the recognition of lung disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis in two patients and Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare in a third patient at the University of Texas M. D. Anderson Hospital represents the first report of these agents occurring in allogeneic marrow recipients. Diagnosis can be difficult due to atypical presentations, initial negative culture results, and the presence of more than one pathogen in these compromised hosts. In the case involving Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare infection, culture of material obtained by bronchoscopy established the diagnosis when repeated sputum samples showed no growth. A vigorous search for mycobacteria is suggested in allogeneic bone marrow transplant recipients with pulmonary infections.