Neuroimaging studies of violence and antisocial behavior

Does the Relationship between Age and Brain Structure Differ in Youth with Conduct Disorder?

Conduct disorder (CD) is characterised by persistent antisocial and aggressive behaviour and typically emerges in childhood or adolescence. Although several authors have proposed that CD is a neurodevelopmental disorder, very little evidence is available about brain development in this condition. Structural brain alterations have been observed in CD, and some indirect evidence for delayed brain maturation has been reported. However, no detailed analysis of age-related changes in brain structure in youth with CD has been conducted. Using cross-sectional MRI data, this study aimed to explore differences in brain maturation in youth with CD versus healthy controls to provide further understanding of the neurodevelopmental processes underlying CD. 291 CD cases (153 males) and 379 healthy controls (160 males) aged 9-18 years (Mage = 14.4) were selected from the European multisite FemNAT-CD study. Structural MRI scans were analysed using surface-based morphometry followed by application of the ENIGMA quality control protocols. An atlas-based approach was used to investigate group differences and test for group-by-age and group-by-age-by-sex interactions in cortical thickness, surface area and subcortical volumes. Relative to healthy controls, the CD group showed lower surface area across frontal, temporal and parietal regions as well as lower total surface area. No significant group-by-age or group-by-age-by-sex interactions were observed on any brain structure measure. These findings suggest that CD is associated with lower surface area across multiple cortical regions, but do not support the idea that CD is associated with delayed brain maturation, at least within the age bracket considered here.

Nutritional Criminology: Why the Emerging Research on Ultra-Processed Food Matters to Health and Justice

There is mounting concern over the potential harms associated with ultra-processed foods, including poor mental health and antisocial behavior. Cutting-edge research provides an enhanced understanding of biophysiological mechanisms, including microbiome pathways, and invites a historical reexamination of earlier work that investigated the relationship between nutrition and criminal behavior. Here, in this perspective article, we explore how this emergent research casts new light and greater significance on previous key observations. Despite expanding interest in the field dubbed 'nutritional psychiatry', there has been relatively little attention paid to its relevancy within criminology and the criminal justice system. Since public health practitioners, allied mental health professionals, and policymakers play key roles throughout criminal justice systems, a holistic perspective on both historical and emergent research is critical. While there are many questions to be resolved, the available evidence suggests that nutrition might be an underappreciated factor in prevention and treatment along the criminal justice spectrum. The intersection of nutrition and biopsychosocial health requires transdisciplinary discussions of power structures, industry influence, and marketing issues associated with widespread food and social inequalities. Some of these discussions are already occurring under the banner of 'food crime'. Given the vast societal implications, it is our contention that the subject of nutrition in the multidisciplinary field of criminology-referred to here as nutritional criminology-deserves increased scrutiny. Through combining historical findings and cutting-edge research, we aim to increase awareness of this topic among the broad readership of the journal, with the hopes of generating new hypotheses and collaborations.

Neuroanatomical correlates of aggressiveness: a case-control voxel- and surface-based morphometric study

Aggression occurs across the population ranging on a symptom continuum. Most previous studies have used magnetic resonance imaging in clinical/forensic samples, which is associated with several confounding factors. The present study examined structural brain characteristics in two healthy samples differing only in their propensity for aggressive behavior. Voxel- and surface-based morphometry (SBM) analyses were performed on 29 male martial artists and 32 age-matched male controls. Martial artists had significantly increased mean gray matter volume in two frontal (left superior frontal gyrus and bilateral anterior cingulate cortex) and one parietal (bilateral posterior cingulate gyrus and precuneus) brain clusters compared to controls (whole brain: p < 0.001, cluster level: family-wise error (FWE)-corrected). SBM analyses revealed a trend for greater gyrification indices in martial artists compared to controls in the left lateral orbital frontal cortex and the left pars orbitalis (whole brain: p < 0.001, cluster level: FWE-corrected). The results indicate brain structural differences between martial artists and controls in frontal and parietal brain areas critical for emotion processing/inhibition of emotions as well as empathic processes. The present study highlights the importance of studying healthy subjects with a propensity for aggressive behavior in future structural MRI research on aggression.

Sensorimotor gating characteristics of violent men with comorbid psychosis and dissocial personality disorder: Relationship with antisocial traits and psychosocial deprivation

Evidence suggests violence amongst those with psychosis is not aetiologically homogeneous, and that a large proportion of those who engage in violent behaviour have a comorbid antisocial personality disorder. Initial investigations indicate that this subgroup has distinct historical and neuropsychological characteristics, which may indicate diverse treatment needs. This study investigated sensorimotor gating characteristics of violent men with diagnoses of both psychosis and dissocial personality disorder (DPD) (n=21) relative to violent men with psychosis alone (n=12), DPD alone (n=14) and healthy, non-violent male controls (n=27), using the prepulse inhibition (PPI) paradigm. The results indicated that, relative to the psychosis alone and healthy control groups, the comorbid group had lower PPI, especially at 60-ms prepulse-to-pulse interval. The DPD group took an intermediary position and did not differ from any group. Antisocial personality traits (factor two scores of the Psychopathy Checklist - Revised), and greater severity of childhood psychosocial deprivation (including physical and sexual abuse), were significantly correlated with poor PPI across the clinical sample. The findings suggest diverse sensorimotor gating profiles amongst subgroups of violent offenders, with comorbid psychosis and DPD showing most impairment. This is consistent with a 'double dose' of deficit explanation amongst those with both diagnoses, explained at least in part by presence of antisocial personality traits and childhood psychosocial deprivation.

Violence in older people with mental illness

Aggression is common in older people with mental illness, with 15–43% of community referrals to old age psychiatry services and 44–65% of older people with Alzheimer's disease living in the community exhibiting such behaviour. In psychiatric in-patient units, assaults on staff are most common on wards for elderly people with organic mental illness. There is little high-quality research into the management of aggressive behaviour in dementia. We consider the available literature, which has shown certain behavioural measures and different classes of medication to be of benefit. We discuss factors associated with violence in elderly people with mental illness and potential management options.

Child Abuse, Neural Structure, and Adolescent Psychopathology: A Longitudinal Study

OBJECTIVE

Child abuse exerts a deleterious impact on a broad array of mental health outcomes. However, the neurobiological mechanisms that mediate this association remain poorly characterized. Here, we use a longitudinal design to prospectively identify neural mediators of the association between child abuse and psychiatric disorders in a community sample of adolescents.

METHOD

Structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data and assessments of mental health were acquired for 51 adolescents (aged 13-20; M=16.96; SD=1.51), 19 of whom were exposed to physical or sexual abuse. Participants were assessed for abuse exposure (time 1), participated in MRI scanning and a diagnostic structured interview (time 2), and 2 years later were followed-up to assess psychopathology (time 3). We examined associations between child abuse and neural structure, and identified whether abuse-related differences in neural structure prospectively predicted psychiatric symptoms.

RESULTS

Abuse was associated with reduced cortical thickness in medial and lateral prefrontal and temporal lobe regions. Thickness of the left and right parahippocampal gyrus predicted antisocial behavior symptoms, and thickness of the middle temporal gyrus predicted symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder. Thickness of the left parahippocampal gyrus mediated the longitudinal association of abuse with antisocial behavior.

CONCLUSION

Child abuse is associated with widespread disruptions in cortical structure, and these disruptions are selectively associated with increased vulnerability to internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. Identifying predictive biomarkers of vulnerability following childhood maltreatment may uncover neurodevelopmental mechanisms linking environmental experience with the onset of psychopathology.

Neuroimaging and Violence

Violence is a serious public health issue across the world. This article assists clinicians in understanding the most up-to-date literature regarding structural and functional brain theories related to risk of violence. In this article, we review anatomic regions of the brain that have been implicated in violence and associated personality constructs associated with violence. We discuss different imaging techniques that have been used to uncover abnormal brain volume, associations, and functions throughout the brain in samples with violence history or risk. Finally, we discuss implications of these findings both for treatment considerations and future research directions.

Neurobiological correlates in forensic assessment: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

With the increased knowledge of biological risk factors, interest in including this information in forensic assessments is growing. Currently, forensic assessments are predominantly focused on psychosocial factors. A better understanding of the neurobiology of violent criminal behaviour and biological risk factors could improve forensic assessments.

OBJECTIVE

To provide an overview of the current evidence about biological risk factors that predispose people to antisocial and violent behaviour, and determine its usefulness in forensic assessment.

METHODS

A systematic literature search was conducted using articles from PsycINFO, Embase and Pubmed published between 2000 and 2013.

RESULTS

This review shows that much research on the relationship between genetic predisposition and neurobiological alterations with aggression is performed on psychiatric patients or normal populations. However, the number of studies comparing offenders is limited. There is still a great need to understand how genetic and neurobiological alterations and/or deficits are related to violent behaviour, specifically criminality. Most studies focus on only one of the genetic or neurobiological fields related to antisocial and/or violent behaviour. To reliably correlate the findings of these fields, a standardization of methodology is urgently needed.

CONCLUSION

Findings from the current review suggest that violent aggression, like all forms of human behaviour, both develops under specific genetic and environmental conditions, and requires interplay between these conditions. Violence should be considered as the end product of a chain of life events, during which risks accumulate and potentially reinforce each other, displaying or triggering a specific situation. This systematic review did not find evidence of predispositions or neurobiological alterations that solely explain antisocial or violent behaviour. With better designed studies, more correlation between diverse fields, and more standardisation, it might be possible to elucidate underlying mechanisms. Thus, we advocate maintaining the current case-by-case differentiated approach to evidence-based forensic assessment.

Understanding Youth Antisocial Behavior Using Neuroscience through a Developmental Psychopathology Lens: Review, Integration, and Directions for Research

Youth antisocial behavior (AB) is an important public health concern impacting perpetrators, victims, and society. Functional neuroimaging is becoming a more common and useful modality for understanding neural correlates of youth AB. Although there has been a recent increase in neuroimaging studies of youth AB and corresponding theoretical articles on the neurobiology of AB, there has been little work critically examining the strengths and weaknesses of individual studies and using this knowledge to inform the design of future studies. Additionally, research on neuroimaging and youth AB has not been integrated within the broader framework of developmental psychopathology. Thus, this paper provides an in-depth review of the youth AB functional neuroimaging literature with the following goals: 1. to evaluate how this literature has informed our understanding of youth AB, 2. to evaluate current neuroimaging studies of youth AB from a developmental psychopathology perspective with a focus on integrating research from neuroscience and developmental psychopathology, as well as placing this research in the context of other related areas (e.g., psychopathy, molecular genetics), and 3. to examine strengths and weaknesses of neuroimaging and behavioral studies of youth AB to suggest how future studies can develop a more informed and integrated understanding of youth AB.

Executive functioning deficits and childhood trauma in juvenile violent offenders in China

A large body of evidence indicates that violent offenders have executive functioning deficits. However, previous studies have not considered childhood trauma, which is likely to influence the executive functioning of violent offenders. The aim of the present study was to compare the difference of executive functioning among juvenile violent offenders, with non-violent offenders and normal controls, and then to analyse whether executive functioning was affected independently of childhood trauma. In addition to using a battery of tests assessing executive functioning including the Intra/Extradimensional Shift Test(IED), the Stockings of Cambridge Test (SOC), and the Spatial Working Memory Test (SWM) from the Cambridge Automated Neuropsychological Testing Battery (CANTAB), the short form of the Chinese Revision of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-RC) and Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-28 item Short Form (CTQ) were also used among 107 violent offenders, 107 non-violent offenders and 107 normal controls. Our results showed that both offender groups obtained significantly lower estimated Intelligence Quotient (IQ) scores and experienced more childhood trauma than did normal controls. Violent offenders showed impaired executive functioning on tasks of attention set-shifting, working memory and planning. Finally, spatial working memory (SWM) deficits, particularly SWM strategy scores, may be associated with childhood trauma.

The neurobiology of moral sense: facts or hypotheses?

One of the most intriguing frontiers of current neuroscientific research is represented by the investigation of the possible neural substrates of morality. The assumption is that in humans an innate moral sense would exist. If this is true, with no doubt it should be regulated by specific brain mechanisms selected over the course of evolution, as they would promote our species' survival. In the last decade, an increasing number of studies have been carried out to explore the neural bases of human morality.The aim of this paper is to present a comprehensive review of the data regarding the neurobiological origin of the moral sense, through a Medline search of English-language articles from 1980 to February 2012.The available findings would suggest that there might be a main integrative centre for the innate morality, in particular the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, with its multiple connections with the limbic lobe, thalamus and brainstem. The subjective moral sense would be the result of an integration of multiple automatic responses, mainly associated with social emotions and interpretation of others' behaviours and intentions.Since converging observations outline how lesions of the proposed neural networks may underlie some personality changes and criminal behaviours, the implications of the studies in this field encompass many areas of the scientific domain.

Emotion regulation in children with behavior problems: Linking behavioral and brain processes

Past studies have shown that aggressive children exhibit rigid (rather than flexible) parent–child interactions; these rigid repertoires may provide the context through which children fail to acquire emotion-regulation skills. Difficulties in regulating emotion are associated with minimal activity in dorsal systems in the cerebral cortex, for example, the anterior cingulate cortex. The current study aimed to integrate parent–child and neurocognitive indices of emotion regulation and examine their associations for the first time. Sixty children (8–12 years old) referred for treatment for aggression underwent two assessments. Brain processes related to emotion regulation were assessed using dense-array EEG with a computerized go/no-go task. The N2 amplitudes thought to tap inhibitory control were recorded, and a source analysis was conducted. In the second assessment, parents and children were videotaped while trying to solve a conflict topic. State space grids were used to derive two dynamic flexibility parameters from the coded videotapes: (a) the number of transitions between emotional states and (b) the dispersion of emotional states, based on proportional durations in each state. The regression results showed that flexibility measures were not related to N2 amplitudes. However, flexibility measures were significantly associated with the ratio of dorsal to ventral source activation: for transitions, ΔR2 = .27, F (1, 34) = 13.13, p = .001; for dispersion, ΔR2 = .29, F (1, 35) = 14.76, p < .001. Thus, in support of our main hypothesis, greater dyadic flexibility was associated with a higher ratio of dorsomedial to ventral activation, suggesting that children with more flexible parent–child interactions are able to recruit relatively more dorsomedial activity in challenging situations.

Magnitude and chronometry of neural mechanisms of emotion regulation in subtypes of aggressive children

Emotion regulation is a key social skill and children who fail to master it are at risk for clinical disorders. Specific styles of emotion regulation have been associated with particular patterns of prefrontal activation. We investigated whether anxious aggressive children would reveal a different pattern of cortical activation than non-anxious aggressive children and normally-developing children. We examined the magnitude and timing of source activation underlying the N2-an ERP associated with inhibitory control-during a go/nogo task with a negative emotion induction component (loss of earned points). We estimated cortical activation for two regions of interest-a ventral prefrontal and a dorsomedial prefrontal region-for three 100-ms windows over the range of the N2 (200-500 ms). Anxious aggressive children showed high ventral prefrontal activation in the early window; non-anxious aggressive children showed high ventral prefrontal activation in the late window, but only for the duration of the emotion induction; and normally-developing children showed low ventral prefrontal activation throughout. There were no group differences in dorsomedial prefrontal activation. These results suggest that anxious aggressive children recruit ventral prefrontal activation quickly and indiscriminately, possibly giving rise to their rigid, threat-oriented approach to conflict. The late ventral prefrontal activation seen for non-anxious aggressive children may underlie a more delayed, situation-specific, but ineffective response to frustration.

The neurobiology of moral behavior: review and neuropsychiatric implications

Morality may be innate to the human brain. This review examines the neurobiological evidence from research involving functional magnetic resonance imaging of normal subjects, developmental sociopathy, acquired sociopathy from brain lesions, and frontotemporal dementia. These studies indicate a "neuromoral" network for responding to moral dilemmas centered in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and its connections, particularly on the right. The neurobiological evidence indicates the existence of automatic "prosocial" mechanisms for identification with others that are part of the moral brain. Patients with disorders involving this moral network have attenuated emotional reactions to the possibility of harming others and may perform sociopathic acts. The existence of this neuromoral system has major clinical implications for the management of patients with dysmoral behavior from brain disorders and for forensic neuropsychiatry.

Dysfunctional, but not functional, impulsivity is associated with a history of seriously violent behaviour and reduced orbitofrontal and hippocampal volumes in schizophrenia

Aggression and violent acts have been linked with impulsive responding. We investigated whether impulsive personality trait, especially suggestive of dysfunctional impulsivity (i.e. fast and inaccurate responding where this is non-optimal), is associated with a history of seriously violent behaviour and specific brain deficits in schizophrenia. Twenty-four male participants with schizophrenia, of whom 10 had a history of serious physical violence, and 14 healthy male participants were assessed on impulsiveness (dysfunctional impulsivity), venturesomeness (functional impulsivity), and empathy. All participants underwent magnetic resonance imaging. The results revealed that participants with schizophrenia and a history of violence showed elevated impulsiveness but had comparable scores on venturesomeness and empathy dimensions. Impulsiveness scores correlated negatively with reduced orbitofrontal grey matter volume in both the patient and healthy control groups, and with hippocampal volume in the patient group. Our findings suggest that dysfunctional, but not functional, impulsivity is elevated in patients with schizophrenia with a propensity for repetitive violence, and this in turn appears to be associated with reduce volumes of both the orbitofrontal cortex grey matter and the hippocampus. Violence risk prediction and management strategies in schizophrenia may benefit from including specific measures of dysfunctional impulsive traits.

Aggression, psychopathy and brain imaging - Review and future recommendations

Violent behavior appears to result from a complex web of interacting genetic as well as environmental factors. Psychopathy is a strong predictor for relapse in violent acts. The current review shed light on rapidly expanding knowledge in brain imaging related to violent behavior and psychopathy. A literature search was performed in PubMed, Cochrane and PsycInfo combining the key words: mentally disordered offender/aggression/violence/ crime/forensic psychiatry/brain imaging neuroimaging/fMRI/MRI/PET/SPECT/lack of empathy/psychopathy and antisocial personality disorder. The reviewed material, which consisted of 48 articles, indicates a rather strong consensus on the connection between dysfunctional parts of the frontal and temporal lobes and violent antisocial behavior and psychopathy. In future studies, it would be useful to focus on the limbic system and to investigate which parts of the frontal lobes and cerebral networks that are of interest in the psychopathic personality. Moreover, the reviewed material highlights some of the methodological difficulties in this area of research such as selection bias in the recruitment of patients, inadequate matching of control subjects, and sometimes incongruous results. In the future we hope that brain imaging can be used to map biological deviations in different offenders in order to try to learn more about the different mechanisms behind violent behaviors.

Mechanisms underlying aggressive and hostile behavior in amphetamine users

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To review current evidence linking amphetamine use with aggression and to consider possible factors that might underlie this association.

RECENT FINDINGS

Although evidence that amphetamine use is related to increased levels of aggression continues to grow, the underlying processes or mechanisms remain somewhat elusive. In this review, three possible underlying factors are considered. Neurotoxic, pharmacological effects of amphetamine on the dopaminergic and serotonergic systems are related to aggressive, hostile behavior in both animal and human studies. Of particular interest is the converging evidence that amphetamine use is related to impairment in executive functions (including self-control) that are regulated by the prefrontal cortex. Taken together, these findings suggest that amphetamine users may have an impaired capacity to control or inhibit aggressive impulses. Furthermore, high levels of impulsivity related to amphetamine use may also play a role. Finally, amphetamine use is associated with increased positive symptoms of psychosis, particularly paranoia, that contribute to a perception of the environment as a hostile, threatening place.

SUMMARY

Taken separately, each of these factors may lead to an increase in aggression with increased use of amphetamine, but their interactive or synergistic effects may be particularly problematic.

Neuroscience and the law: philosophical differences and practical constraints

Controversies surrounding the value of neuroscience as forensic evidence are explored from the perspective of the philosophy of mind, as well as from a practical analysis of the state of the scientific research literature. At a fundamental philosophical level there are profound differences in how law and neuroscience view the issue of criminal responsibility along the continuum from free will to determinism. At a more practical level, significant limitations in the current state of neuroimaging research constrain its ability to inform legal decision-making. Scientifically supported and unsupported forensic applications for brain imaging are discussed, and recommendations for forensic report writing are offered.

Changes in the neural bases of emotion regulation associated with clinical improvement in children with behavior problems

Children's behavior problems may stem from ineffective cortical mechanisms for regulating negative emotions, and the success of interventions may depend on their impact on such mechanisms. We examined neurophysiological markers associated with emotion regulation in children comorbid for externalizing and internalizing problems before and after treatment. We hypothesized that treatment success would correspond with reduced ventral prefrontal activation, and increased dorsomedial prefrontal activation, at the time point of an event-related potential (ERP) associated with inhibitory control. Twenty-seven 8- to 12-year-old children (with usable data) were tested before and after a 14-week community-based treatment program and assessed as to improvement status. Fifteen 8- to 12-year-olds from the normal population (with usable data) were tested over the same interval. All children completed an emotion-induction go/no-go task while fitted with a 128-channel electrode net at each test session. ERP amplitudes, and estimates of cortical activation in prefrontal regions of interest, were measured at the peak of the "inhibitory" N2 and compared between improvers, nonimprovers, and nonclinical children. ERP amplitudes showed no group differences. However, improvers showed an overall reduction in ventral prefrontal activation from pretreatment to posttreatment, bringing them in line with nonclinical children, whereas ventral activation remained high for nonimprovers. Both improvers and nonimprovers showed high dorsal activation relative to nonclinical children. Supplementary analyses indicated that only ventral prefrontal regions, and only within the N2 time window, showed decreased activity from pre- to posttreatment, suggesting changes in regulatory processes rather than in overall emotional arousal. These cortically mediated changes may permit a reduction in the overengaged, rigid style of emotion regulation characteristic of children with behavior problems.

Morphometric brain abnormalities in boys with conduct disorder

OBJECTIVE

Children with the early-onset type of conduct disorder (CD) are at high risk for developing an antisocial personality disorder. Although there have been several neuroimaging studies on morphometric differences in adults with antisocial personality disorder, little is known about structural brain aberrations in boys with CD.

METHOD

Magnetic resonance imaging and voxel-based morphometry were used to assess abnormalities in gray matter volumes in 23 boys ages 12 to 17 years with CD (17 comorbid for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder) in comparison with age- and IQ-matched controls.

RESULTS

Compared with healthy controls, mean gray matter volume was 6% smaller in the clinical group. Compared with controls, reduced gray matter volumes were found in the left orbitofrontal region and bilaterally in the temporal lobes, including the amygdala and hippocampus on the left side in the CD group. Regression analyses in the clinical group indicated an inverse association of hyperactive/impulsive symptoms and widespread gray matter abnormalities in the frontoparietal and temporal cortices. By contrast, CD symptoms correlated primarily with gray matter reductions in limbic brain structures.

CONCLUSIONS

The data suggest that boys with CD and comorbid attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder show brain abnormalities in frontolimbic areas that resemble structural brain deficits, which are typically observed in adults with antisocial behavior.

The effects of HIV on P300 are moderated by familial risk for substance dependence: implications for a theory of brain reserve

BACKGROUND

The goal of the study was to test the validity of additive versus synergistic versus underadditive versions of brain reserve theory within the context of HIV/AIDS. In addition, it tested the convergent validity of 2 operational definitions of premorbid reserve: verbal IQ (VIQ) and a family history (FH) of substance abuse or dependence.

METHODS

Seventy HIV-1 seronegative and 115 HIV-1 seropositive male and female volunteers were assigned to 4 subgroups defined by the crossing of a VIQ score < versus > or = 90 with the presence versus absence of a paternal history of alcohol, cocaine, or opiate abuse or dependence. The principal dependent measure was the P300 event related brain potential elicited during the Stroop color-word interference task.

RESULTS

The principal finding was an underadditive effect of FH plus HIV/AIDS on P300 area over the frontal region: FH reduced frontal scalp P300 to such a degree that the additional effects of HIV/AIDS were blunted. The alternate operational definition of brain reserve, VIQ, had no effect on P300 and did not alter the effects of HIV/AIDS.

CONCLUSIONS

Familial risk for substance dependence and low VIQ compromise different aspects of brain structure and/or function and therefore differ in their relationship to HIV/AIDS and P300. Genetic differences associated with familial risk may reduce brain reserve to such a degree that the neurophysiological effects of HIV/AIDS can no longer be measured.

Structural and functional MRI- findings in children and adolescents with antisocial behavior

BACKGROUND

The developmental course of children with conduct disorder (CD) is heterogeneous. Especially children who exhibit symptoms early in their lifetimes are characterized by a negative outcome. Neurobiological aspects of CD have been investigated in these children but little is known about structural and functional brain aberrations.

METHODS

We describe the developmental taxonomy of children with CD and focus on those with the early onset subtype. Structural MRI data of these children and antisocial adults are recapitulated. The impact of investigating neurobiological underpinnings of antisocial behavior and how this might contribute to future forensic and psychiatric assessments is discussed. RESULTS/ CONCLUSION: Children display similar structural aberrations of fronto-limbic structures to adults with antisocial behavior, and amygdala dysfunction might be closely related to dysregulated emotions. Though the investigation of biological factors in antisocial subjects has made great progress in recent years, today MRI is still a rather complex, expensive and indistinct method for forensic assessment.

Behavioral differences in aggressive children linked with neural mechanisms of emotion regulation

Children with aggressive behavior problems may have difficulties regulating negative emotions, resulting in harmful patterns of interpersonal behavior at home and in the schoolyard. Ventral and dorsal regions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) have been associated with response inhibition and self-control-key components of emotion regulation. Our research program aims to explore differences among aggressive and normal children in the activation of these cortical regions during emotional episodes, to the extent possible using electrophysiological techniques, to identify diagnostic subtypes, gain insights into their interpersonal difficulties, and help develop effective treatment strategies. This report reviews several recent studies investigating individual and developmental differences in cortical mechanisms of emotion regulation, corresponding with different patterns of interpersonal behavior. Our methods include event-related potentials (ERPs) and cortical source modeling, using dense-array electroencephalography (EEG) technology, as well as videotaped observations of parent-child interactions, with both normal and aggressive children. By relating patterns of brain activation to observed behavioral differences, we find (i) a steady decrease in cortical activation subserving self-regulation across childhood and adolescence, (ii) different cortical activation patterns as well as behavioral constellations distinguishing subtypes of aggressive children, and (iii) robust correlations between the activation of cortical mediators of emotion regulation and flexibility in parent-child emotional communication in children referred for aggressive behavior problems. These findings point toward models of developmental psychopathology based on the interplay among biological, psychological, and social factors.

What frontotemporal dementia reveals about the neurobiological basis of morality

There is evidence that moral behavior is a product of evolution and an innate aspect of the human brain. Functional magnetic resonance studies in normals, investigations of psychopaths, and acquired sociopathy from brain lesions suggest a neurobiology of moral behavior. Reports of sociopathy among patients with frontotemporal dementia (FTD) have provided a further opportunity to clarify the neurobiology of morality. They confirm a morality network that includes the ventromedial frontal cortex, the orbitofrontal cortex, and the amygdalae. The right ventromedial region is critical for the emotional tagging of moral situations, the orbitofrontal cortex responds to social cues and mitigates impulsive reactions, and the amygdalae are necessary for threat detection and moral learning. Alterations in moral behavior in FTD may result from a loss of the emotional label of moral dilemmas, coupled with disinhibited responses. More investigations are needed to fully understand how the brain mediates moral or ethical behavior.

Quantitative MRI measures of orbitofrontal cortex in patients with chronic schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder

The relationship between orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) volumes and functional domains in treatment-resistant patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder is poorly understood. OFC dysfunction is implicated in several of the behaviors that are abnormal in schizophrenia. However, little is known about the relationship between these behaviors and OFC volumes. Forty-nine patients received magnetic resonance imaging scanning as part of a double-blind treatment study in which psychiatric symptomatology, neuropsychological function, and aggression were measured. OFC volumes were manually traced on anatomical images. Psychiatric symptomatology was measured with the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). Aggression was measured with the Overt Aggression Scale (OAS) and with the PANSS. Neuropsychological function was assessed using a comprehensive test battery. Larger right OFC volumes were associated with poorer neuropsychological function. Larger left OFC gray matter volumes and larger OFC white matter volumes bilaterally were associated with greater levels of aggression. These findings are discussed in the context of potential iatrogenic effects.

DTI and impulsivity in schizophrenia: a first voxelwise correlational analysis

Compromised white matter (WM) integrity in inferior frontal WM has been related to impulsivity in men with schizophrenia. However, these relationships may be more widespread. Fractional anisotropy (FA) derived from diffusion tensor imaging of 25 men with schizophrenia was transformed into Talairach space. Correlations between FA and impulsiveness were examined on a voxelwise basis. We found negative correlations between FA and impulsivity in inferior frontal WM, anterior cingulate, caudate, insula, and inferior parietal lobule. Positive correlations were obtained in the left postcentral gyrus, right superior/middle temporal gyrus, and bilateral fusiform gyrus. These areas may comprise a fronto-temporo-limbic circuit that modulates impulsivity. The voxelwise correlation method can serve as a hypothesis-generation method for relating target behaviors to their underlying neural networks.

Reflections on partner violence: 20 years of research and beyond

The authors reflect on past research and technology as well as their hopes for future innovations within the field of intimate partner violence. They review work that has contributed to current conceptual definitions of partner violence, particularly those that have shaped the field's broadened perspective. They discuss technological and measurement innovations that have contributed to more accurate assessments of violence prevalence. The authors believe that via these technologies, the true extent of violence within the home has been made known. In conclusion, the authors argue that to reduce violence between partners, there is an overwhelming need for future researchers to build on past data, develop improved theories, and apply those ideas to prevention and intervention techniques and programs. Furthermore, they believe that it is imperative for current and future programs to be extensively evaluated and tested for their effectiveness.