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Lucas-Ruiz F, Galindo-Romero C, Albaladejo-García V, Vidal-Sanz M, Agudo-Barriuso M. Mechanisms implicated in the contralateral effect in the central nervous system after unilateral injury: focus on the visual system. Neural Regen Res 2021; 16:2125-2131. [PMID: 33818483 PMCID: PMC8354113 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.310670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2020] [Revised: 11/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The retina, as part of the central nervous system is an ideal model to study the response of neurons to injury and disease and to test new treatments. During the last decade is becoming clear that unilateral lesions in bilateral areas of the central nervous system trigger an inflammatory response in the contralateral uninjured site. This effect has been better studied in the visual system where, as a rule, one retina is used as experimental and the other as control. Contralateral retinas in unilateral models of retinal injury show neuronal degeneration and glial activation. The mechanisms by which this adverse response in the central nervous system occurs are discussed in this review, focusing primarily on the visual system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Lucas-Ruiz
- Departamento de Oftalmología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Murcia and Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria-Virgen de la Arrixaca (IMIBArrixaca) Murcia, Spain
| | - Caridad Galindo-Romero
- Departamento de Oftalmología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Murcia and Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria-Virgen de la Arrixaca (IMIBArrixaca) Murcia, Spain
| | - Virginia Albaladejo-García
- Departamento de Oftalmología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Murcia and Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria-Virgen de la Arrixaca (IMIBArrixaca) Murcia, Spain
| | - Manuel Vidal-Sanz
- Departamento de Oftalmología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Murcia and Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria-Virgen de la Arrixaca (IMIBArrixaca) Murcia, Spain
| | - Marta Agudo-Barriuso
- Departamento de Oftalmología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Murcia and Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria-Virgen de la Arrixaca (IMIBArrixaca) Murcia, Spain
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Neuronal Death in the Contralateral Un-Injured Retina after Unilateral Axotomy: Role of Microglial Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20225733. [PMID: 31731684 PMCID: PMC6888632 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20225733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Revised: 11/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
For years it has been known that unilateral optic nerve lesions induce a bilateral response that causes an inflammatory and microglial response in the contralateral un-injured retinas. Whether this contralateral response involves retinal ganglion cell (RGC) loss is still unknown. We have analyzed the population of RGCs and the expression of several genes in both retinas of pigmented mice after a unilateral axotomy performed close to the optic nerve head (0.5 mm), or the furthest away that the optic nerve can be accessed intraorbitally in mice (2 mm). In both retinas, RGC-specific genes were down-regulated, whereas caspase 3 was up-regulated. In the contralateral retinas, there was a significant loss of 15% of RGCs that did not progress further and that occurred earlier when the axotomy was performed at 2 mm, that is, closer to the contralateral retina. Finally, the systemic treatment with minocycline, a tetracycline antibiotic that selectively inhibits microglial cells, or with meloxicam, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, rescued RGCs in the contralateral but not in the injured retina. In conclusion, a unilateral optic nerve axotomy triggers a bilateral response that kills RGCs in the un-injured retina, a death that is controlled by anti-inflammatory and anti-microglial treatments. Thus, contralateral retinas should not be used as controls.
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Blixt FW, Haanes KA, Ohlsson L, Dreisig K, Fedulov V, Warfvinge K, Edvinsson L. MEK/ERK/1/2 sensitive vascular changes coincide with retinal functional deficit, following transient ophthalmic artery occlusion. Exp Eye Res 2018; 179:142-149. [PMID: 30439349 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2018.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2018] [Revised: 10/22/2018] [Accepted: 11/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Retinal ischemia remains a major cause of blindness in the world with few acute treatments available. Recent emphasis on retinal vasculature and the ophthalmic artery's vascular properties after ischemia has shown an increase in vasoconstrictive functionality, as previously observed in cerebral arteries following stroke. Specifically, endothelin-1 (ET-1) receptor-mediated vasoconstriction regulated by the MEK/ERK1/2 pathway. In this study, the ophthalmic artery of rats was occluded for 2 h with the middle cerebral artery occlusion model. MEK/ERK1/2 inhibitor U0126 was administered at 0, 6, and 24 h following reperfusion and the functional properties of the ophthalmic artery were evaluated at 48 h post reperfusion. Additionally, retinal function was evaluated at day 1, 4, and 7 after reperfusion. Occlusion of the ophthalmic artery led to a significant increase of endothelin-1 mediated vasoconstriction which can be attenuated by U0126 treatment, most evident at higher ET-1 concentrations of 10-7 M (Emax151.0 ± 22.0% of 60 mM K+), vs non-treated ischemic arteries Emax 212.1 ± 14.7% of 60 mM K+). Retinal function also deteriorated following ischemia and was improved with treatment with a-wave amplitudes of 725 ± 36 μV in control, 560 ± 21 μV in non-treated, and 668 ± 73 μV in U0126 treated at 2 log cd*s/m2 luminance in the acute stages (1 days post-ischemia). Full spontaneous retinal recovery was observed at day 7 regardless of treatment. In conclusion, this is the first study to show a beneficial in vivo effect of U0126 on vascular contractility following ischemia in the ophthalmic artery. Coupled with the knowledge obtained from cerebral vasculature, these results point towards a novel therapeutic approach following ischemia-related injuries to the eye.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank W Blixt
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Division of Experimental Vascular Research, Lund University, Lund, Sweden.
| | - Kristian Agmund Haanes
- Department of Clinical Experimental Research, Glostrup Research Institute, Rigshospitalet, Glostrup, Denmark
| | - Lena Ohlsson
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Division of Experimental Vascular Research, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Karin Dreisig
- Department of Clinical Experimental Research, Glostrup Research Institute, Rigshospitalet, Glostrup, Denmark
| | - Vadim Fedulov
- Department of Clinical Experimental Research, Glostrup Research Institute, Rigshospitalet, Glostrup, Denmark
| | - Karin Warfvinge
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Division of Experimental Vascular Research, Lund University, Lund, Sweden; Department of Clinical Experimental Research, Glostrup Research Institute, Rigshospitalet, Glostrup, Denmark
| | - Lars Edvinsson
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Division of Experimental Vascular Research, Lund University, Lund, Sweden; Department of Clinical Experimental Research, Glostrup Research Institute, Rigshospitalet, Glostrup, Denmark
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Reiner A, Fitzgerald MEC, Del Mar N, Li C. Neural control of choroidal blood flow. Prog Retin Eye Res 2018; 64:96-130. [PMID: 29229444 PMCID: PMC5971129 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2017.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Revised: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 12/01/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The choroid is richly innervated by parasympathetic, sympathetic and trigeminal sensory nerve fibers that regulate choroidal blood flow in birds and mammals, and presumably other vertebrate classes as well. The parasympathetic innervation has been shown to vasodilate and increase choroidal blood flow, the sympathetic input has been shown to vasoconstrict and decrease choroidal blood flow, and the sensory input has been shown to both convey pain and thermal information centrally and act locally to vasodilate and increase choroidal blood flow. As the choroid lies behind the retina and cannot respond readily to retinal metabolic signals, its innervation is important for adjustments in flow required by either retinal activity, by fluctuations in the systemic blood pressure driving choroidal perfusion, and possibly by retinal temperature. The former two appear to be mediated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, via central circuits responsive to retinal activity and systemic blood pressure, but adjustments for ocular perfusion pressure also appear to be influenced by local autoregulatory myogenic mechanisms. Adaptive choroidal responses to temperature may be mediated by trigeminal sensory fibers. Impairments in the neural control of choroidal blood flow occur with aging, and various ocular or systemic diseases such as glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration (AMD), hypertension, and diabetes, and may contribute to retinal pathology and dysfunction in these conditions, or in the case of AMD be a precondition. The present manuscript reviews findings in birds and mammals that contribute to the above-summarized understanding of the roles of the autonomic and sensory innervation of the choroid in controlling choroidal blood flow, and in the importance of such regulation for maintaining retinal health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anton Reiner
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of Tennessee, 855 Monroe Ave. Memphis, TN 38163, United States; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee, 855 Monroe Ave. Memphis, TN 38163, United States.
| | - Malinda E C Fitzgerald
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of Tennessee, 855 Monroe Ave. Memphis, TN 38163, United States; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee, 855 Monroe Ave. Memphis, TN 38163, United States; Department of Biology, Christian Brothers University, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Nobel Del Mar
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of Tennessee, 855 Monroe Ave. Memphis, TN 38163, United States
| | - Chunyan Li
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of Tennessee, 855 Monroe Ave. Memphis, TN 38163, United States
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Gok M, Ozer MA, Ozen S, Botan Yildirim B. The evaluation of retinal and choroidal structural changes by optical coherence tomography in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Curr Eye Res 2017; 43:116-121. [DOI: 10.1080/02713683.2017.1373824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mustafa Gok
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ordu University Faculty of Medicine, Ordu, Turkey
| | - Murat Atabey Ozer
- Department of Ophthalmology, Giresun University Faculty of Medicine, Giresun, Turkey
| | - Serkan Ozen
- Department of Ophthalmology, Giresun University Faculty of Medicine, Giresun, Turkey
| | - Berna Botan Yildirim
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Ministry of Health – Ordu University Research and Training Hospital, Ordu, Turkey
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Ortiz G, Odom JV, Passaglia CL, Tzekov RT. Efferent influences on the bioelectrical activity of the retina in primates. Doc Ophthalmol 2016; 134:57-73. [PMID: 28032236 DOI: 10.1007/s10633-016-9567-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The existence of retinopetal (sometimes referred to as "efferent" or "centrifugal") axons in the mammalian optic nerve is a topic of long-standing debate. Opposition is fading as efferent innervation of the retina has now been widely documented in rodents and other animals. The existence and function of an efferent system in humans and non-human primates has not, though, been definitively established. Such a feedback pathway could have important functional, clinical, and experimental significance to the field of vision science and ophthalmology. METHODS Following a comprehensive literature review (PubMed and Google Scholar, until July 2016), we present evidence regarding a system that can influence the bioelectrical activity of the retina in primates. RESULTS Anatomical and physiological evidences are presented separately. Improvements in histological staining and the advent of retrograde nerve fiber tracers have allowed for more confidence in the identification of efferent optic nerve fibers, including back to their point of origin. CONCLUSION Even with the accumulation of more modern anatomical and physiological evidence, some limitations and uncertainties about crucial details regarding the origins and role of a top-down, efferent system still exist. However, the summary of the evidence from earlier and more modern studies makes a compelling case in support of such a system in humans and non-human primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gonzalo Ortiz
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of South Florida, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Blvd., MDC 21, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA
| | - J Vernon Odom
- Department of Ophthalmology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Christopher L Passaglia
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of South Florida, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Blvd., MDC 21, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA.,Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Radouil T Tzekov
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of South Florida, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Blvd., MDC 21, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA. .,The Roskamp Institute, Sarasota, FL, USA.
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Tang X, Tzekov R, Passaglia CL. Retinal cross talk in the mammalian visual system. J Neurophysiol 2016; 115:3018-29. [PMID: 26984426 DOI: 10.1152/jn.01137.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Accepted: 03/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The existence and functional relevance of efferent optic nerve fibers in mammals have long been debated. While anatomical evidence for cortico-retinal and retino-retinal projections is substantial, physiological evidence is lacking, as efferent fibers are few in number and are severed in studies of excised retinal tissue. Here we show that interocular connections contribute to retinal bioelectrical activity in adult mammals. Full-field flash electroretinograms (ERGs) were recorded from one or both eyes of Brown-Norway rats under dark-adapted (n = 16) and light-adapted (n = 11) conditions. Flashes were confined to each eye by an opaque tube that blocked stray light. Monocular flashes evoked a small (5-15 μV) signal in the nonilluminated eye, which was named "crossed ERG" (xERG). The xERG began under dark-adapted conditions with a positive (xP1) wave that peaked at 70-90 ms and ended with slower negative (xN1) and positive (xP2) waves from 200 to 400 ms. xN1 was absent under light-adapted conditions. Injection of tetrodotoxin in either eye (n = 15) eliminated the xERG. Intraocular pressure elevation of the illuminated eye (n = 6) had the same effect. The treatments also altered the ERG b-wave in both eyes, and the alterations correlated with xERG disappearance. Optic nerve stimulation (n = 3) elicited a biphasic compound action potential in the nonstimulated nerve with 10- to 13-ms latency, implying that the xERG comes from slow-conducting (W type) fibers. Monocular dye application (n = 7) confirmed the presence of retino-retinal ganglion cells in adult rats. We conclude that mammalian eyes communicate directly with each other via a handful of optic nerve fibers. The cross talk alters retinal activity in rats, and perhaps other animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolan Tang
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida
| | - Radouil Tzekov
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida; and The Roskamp Institute, Sarasota, Florida
| | - Christopher L Passaglia
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida; Department of Ophthalmology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida; and
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Trevino R, Stewart B. Change in intraocular pressure during scleral depression. JOURNAL OF OPTOMETRY 2015; 8:244-251. [PMID: 25444648 PMCID: PMC4591424 DOI: 10.1016/j.optom.2014.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2014] [Revised: 08/06/2014] [Accepted: 08/09/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Manometric studies have found that intraocular pressure (IOP) rises 116-350 mmHg during scleral depression in surgical settings. No information is available regarding the effect of scleral depression on IOP in routine clinical settings. The aim of this study is to quantify the change in IOP that occurs when scleral depression is performed on normal eyes in a routine clinical setting. METHODS A total of 28 eyes from 28 normal subjects were included. Tono-Pen tonometry was performed while scleral depression was performed in each of the two quadrants: superotemporal (ST) and inferonasal (IN). A post-procedure IOP measurement was obtained following each scleral depression examination. Both ST and IN quadrants were tested on all eyes, with the quadrant tested first chosen at random (15 ST, 13 IN). RESULTS The mean IOP during scleral depression was 65.3 mmHg ST and 47.8 mmHg IN, with a maximum recorded IOP of 88 mmHg. The mean change in IOP for the ST quadrant was 51.9 ± 17.3 mmHg and 46.4 ± 16.0 mmHg for the right and left eyes, respectively. The mean change in IOP for the IN quadrant was 45.3 ± 22.7 mmHg and 16.8 ± 15.8 mmHg for the right and left eyes, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Scleral depression as performed in a routine office setting produces wide fluctuations in IOP and may impair ocular perfusion. Additional studies are needed to determine the long-term consequences of routine scleral depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Trevino
- Rosenberg School of Optometry, University of the Incarnate Word, 9725 Datapoint Drive, San Antonio, TX 78229, United States.
| | - Brandi Stewart
- Rosenberg School of Optometry, University of the Incarnate Word, 9725 Datapoint Drive, San Antonio, TX 78229, United States
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O'Connell RA, Anderson AJ, Hosking SL, Bui BV. Provocative intraocular pressure challenge preferentially decreases venous oxygen saturation despite no reduction in blood flow. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2014; 35:114-24. [PMID: 25528886 DOI: 10.1111/opo.12170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2014] [Accepted: 10/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Ocular disease can both alter the retina's oxygen requirements, and decrease its ability to cope with changes in metabolic demand. We examined the influence of a moderate intraocular pressure (IOP) elevation on three outcome measures: arterial and venous oxygen saturation, blood flow, and the pattern electroretinogram (PERG). METHODS We increased IOP to ˜30 mmHg in 23 healthy participants (22-39 years) using a mechanical probe applied to the eyelid, thereby lowering ocular perfusion pressure (OPP) by ~30%. The Oxymap retinal oximeter was used to measure oxygen saturation for arteries and veins. Blood flow, volume and velocity were measured using the Heidelberg retinal flowmeter and steady-state PERG waveforms (8.34 Hz) were recorded bilaterally (200 sweeps). For each outcome measure, data was obtained three times: at baseline, 1 min into sustained IOP elevation, and 1 min after the probe was removed. RESULTS During IOP elevation, changes in oxygen saturation of retinal arteries failed to reach statistical significance [F(1,30) = 3.69, p = 0.05], whereas venous oxygen saturation was significantly reduced [F(1,21) = 27.43, p < 0.01]. Blood flow increased slightly [F(2,40) = 6.28, p < 0.0001], PERG amplitude significantly reduced [F(2,44) = 24.24, p < 0.0001] and PERG phase was significantly delayed [F(2,44) = 17.00, p < 0.0001]. Contralateral eyes were unchanged. OPP reduction correlated little with PERG amplitude, PERG phase or venous oxygen saturation. CONCLUSIONS Mild, acute IOP elevation increases arterio-venous oxygen saturation differences primarily through lowering venous oxygen saturation, suggesting increased oxygen consumption by healthy neurons when physiologically stressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachael A O'Connell
- Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia; Department of Ophthalmology, Countess of Chester Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Chester, UK
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Bui BV, He Z, Vingrys AJ, Nguyen CTO, Wong VHY, Fortune B. Using the electroretinogram to understand how intraocular pressure elevation affects the rat retina. J Ophthalmol 2013; 2013:262467. [PMID: 23431417 PMCID: PMC3570935 DOI: 10.1155/2013/262467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2012] [Accepted: 10/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Intraocular pressure (IOP) elevation is a key risk factor for glaucoma. Our understanding of the effect that IOP elevation has on the eye has been greatly enhanced by the application of the electroretinogram (ERG). In this paper, we describe how the ERG in the rodent eye is affected by changes in IOP magnitude, duration, and number of spikes. We consider how the variables of blood pressure and age can modify the effect of IOP elevation on the ERG. Finally, we contrast the effects that acute and chronic IOP elevation can have on the rodent ERG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bang V. Bui
- Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Zheng He
- Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Algis J. Vingrys
- Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Christine T. O. Nguyen
- Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Vickie H. Y. Wong
- Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Brad Fortune
- Devers Eye Institute and Legacy Research Institute, Legacy Health, Portland, OR 97232, USA
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