A phase I trial of oblimersen sodium in combination with cisplatin and 5-fluorouracil in patients with advanced esophageal, gastroesophageal junction, and gastric carcinoma

Apoptosis: A Comprehensive Overview of Signaling Pathways, Morphological Changes, and Physiological Significance and Therapeutic Implications

Cell survival and death are intricately governed by apoptosis, a meticulously controlled programmed cell death. Apoptosis is vital in facilitating embryonic development and maintaining tissue homeostasis and immunological functioning. It is a complex interplay of intrinsic and extrinsic signaling pathways that ultimately converges on executing the apoptotic program. The extrinsic pathway is initiated by the binding of death ligands such as TNF-α and Fas to their respective receptors on the cell surface. In contrast, the intrinsic pathway leads to increased permeability of the outer mitochondrial membrane and the release of apoptogenic factors like cytochrome c, which is regulated by the Bcl-2 family of proteins. Once activated, these pathways lead to a cascade of biochemical events, including caspase activation, DNA fragmentation, and the dismantling of cellular components. Dysregulation of apoptosis is implicated in various disorders, such as cancer, autoimmune diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, and cardiovascular diseases. This article focuses on elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying apoptosis regulation, to develop targeted therapeutic strategies. Modulating apoptotic pathways holds immense potential in cancer treatment, where promoting apoptosis in malignant cells could lead to tumor regression. This article demonstrates the therapeutic potential of targeting apoptosis, providing options for treating cancer and neurological illnesses. The safety and effectiveness of apoptosis-targeting drugs are being assessed in ongoing preclinical and clinical trials (phase I-III), opening the door for more effective therapeutic approaches and better patient outcomes.

Comprehensive review of Bcl-2 family proteins in cancer apoptosis: Therapeutic strategies and promising updates of natural bioactive compounds and small molecules

Cancer has a considerably higher fatality rate than other diseases globally and is one of the most lethal and profoundly disruptive ailments. The increasing incidence of cancer among humans is one of the greatest challenges in the field of healthcare. A significant factor in the initiation and progression of tumorigenesis is the dysregulation of physiological processes governing cell death, which results in the survival of cancerous cells. B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) family members play important roles in several cancer-related processes. Drug research and development have identified various promising natural compounds that demonstrate potent anticancer effects by specifically targeting Bcl-2 family proteins and their associated signaling pathways. This comprehensive review highlights the substantial roles of Bcl-2 family proteins in regulating apoptosis, including the intricate signaling pathways governing the activity of these proteins, the impact of reactive oxygen species, and the crucial involvement of proteasome degradation and the stress response. Furthermore, this review discusses advances in the exploration and potential therapeutic applications of natural compounds and small molecules targeting Bcl-2 family proteins and thus provides substantial scientific information and therapeutic strategies for cancer management.

Antisense Oligonucleotide-Mediated Splice Switching: Potential Therapeutic Approach for Cancer Mitigation

Splicing is an essential process wherein precursor messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) is reshaped into mature mRNA. In alternative splicing, exons of any pre-mRNA get rearranged to form mRNA variants and subsequently protein isoforms, which are distinct both by structure and function. On the other hand, aberrant splicing is the cause of many disorders, including cancer. In the past few decades, developments in the understanding of the underlying biological basis for cancer progression and therapeutic resistance have identified many oncogenes as well as carcinogenic splice variants of essential genes. These transcripts are involved in various cellular processes, such as apoptosis, cell signaling and proliferation. Strategies to inhibit these carcinogenic isoforms at the mRNA level are promising. Antisense oligonucleotides (AOs) have been developed to inhibit the production of alternatively spliced carcinogenic isoforms through splice modulation or mRNA degradation. AOs can also be used to induce splice switching, where the expression of an oncogenic protein can be inhibited by the induction of a premature stop codon. In general, AOs are modified chemically to increase their stability and binding affinity. One of the major concerns with AOs is efficient delivery. Strategies for the delivery of AOs are constantly being evolved to facilitate the entry of AOs into cells. In this review, the different chemical modifications employed and delivery strategies applied are discussed. In addition to that various AOs in clinical trials and their efficacy are discussed herein with a focus on six distinct studies that use AO-mediated exon skipping as a therapeutic strategy to combat cancer.

Targeting Bcl-2 for cancer therapy

Apoptosis deficiency is one of the most important features observed in neoplastic diseases. The Bcl-2 family is composed of a subset of proteins that act as decisive apoptosis regulators. Research and clinical studies have both demonstrated that the hyperactivation of Bcl-2-related anti-apoptotic effects correlates with cancer occurrence, progression and prognosis, also having a role in facilitating the radio- and chemoresistance of various malignancies. Therefore, targeting Bcl-2 inactivation has provided some compelling therapeutic advantages by enhancing apoptotic sensitivity or reversing drug resistance. Therefore, this pharmacological route turned into one of the most promising routes for cancer treatment. This review discusses some of the well-defined and emerging roles of Bcl-2 as well as its potential clinical value in cancer therapeutics.

Inhibition of Anti-Apoptotic Bcl-2 Proteins in Preclinical and Clinical Studies: Current Overview in Cancer

The dynamic interplay between pro-death and pro-survival Bcl-2 family proteins is responsible for a cell’s fate. Due to the recognized relevance of this family in cancer progression and response to therapy, different efforts have made in recent years in order to develop small molecules able to target anti-apoptotic proteins such as Bcl-2, Bcl-xL and Mcl-1. The limitations of the first Bcl-2 family targeted drugs, regarding on-target and off-target toxicities, have been overcome with the development of venetoclax (ABT-199), the first BH3 mimetic inhibitor approved by the FDA. The purpose of this review is to discuss the state-of-the-art in the development of drugs targeting Bcl-2 anti-apoptotic proteins and to highlight the potential of their application as single agents or in combination for improving anti-cancer therapy, focusing in particular on solid tumors.

Drugs and Clinical Approaches Targeting the Antiapoptotic Protein: A Review

B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) is a regulator protein involved in apoptosis. In the past few decades, this protein has been demonstrated to have high efficacy in cancer therapy, and several approaches targeting Bcl-2 have been tested clinically (e.g., oblimersen, ABT-737, ABT-263, obatoclax mesylate, and AT-101). This review reports potential Bcl-2 inhibitors according to current information on their underlying mechanism and the results of clinical trials. In addition, the function and mechanisms of other potentially valuable Bcl-2 inhibitors that did not show efficacy in clinical studies are also discussed. This summary of the development of Bcl-2 inhibitors provides worthwhile viewpoints on the use of biomedical approaches in future cancer therapy.

RNA-targeted therapeutics in cancer clinical trials: Current status and future directions

Recent advances in RNA delivery and target selection provide unprecedented opportunities for cancer treatment, especially for cancers that are particularly hard to treat with existing drugs. Small interfering RNAs, microRNAs, and antisense oligonucleotides are the most widely used strategies for silencing gene expression. In this review, we summarize how these approaches were used to develop drugs targeting RNA in human cells. Then, we review the current state of clinical trials of these agents for different types of cancer and outcomes from published data. Finally, we discuss lessons learned from completed studies and future directions for this class of drugs.

What's Next for Gastrointestinal Disorders: No Needles?

A myriad of pathologies affect the gastrointestinal tract, citing this affected area as a significant target for therapeutic intervention. One group of therapeutic agents, antisense and oligonucleotides and small interfering RNAs, offer a promising platform for treating a wide variety of diseases ranging from cancer to auto-immune diseases. Current delivery methods are carried out either systemically or locally into diseased areas, both of which involve needles. The challenge in orally administering this type of treatment lies in the complications that arise due to the vast environmental extremes found within the gastrointestinal tract, owing to the fact that, as the drug travels down the gastrointestinal tract, it is subjected to pH changes and interactions with bacteria and a variety of digestive and protective enzymes including proteases, DNAses, and RNAses. Overcoming these challenges to allow the practical application of these drugs is a priority that has invoked a multitude of research in the chemical, biological, and material sciences. In this review, we will address common gastrointestinal pathologies, the barriers to oral-based therapies and antisense-interfering technologies, the approaches that have already been applied for their delivery, and the current status of antisense drug therapy clinical trials for gastrointestinal-related disorders.

Targeting BCL2-Proteins for the Treatment of Solid Tumours

Due to their central role in the regulation of apoptosis, the antiapoptotic BCL2-proteins are highly promising targets for the development of novel anticancer treatments. To this end, several strategies have been developed to inhibit BCL2, BCL-XL, BCL-w, and MCL1. While early clinical trials in haematological malignancies demonstrated exciting single-agent activity of BCL2-inhibitors, the response in solid tumours was limited, indicating that, in solid tumours, different strategies have to be developed in order to successfully treat patients with BCL2-inhibitors. In this review, the function of the different antiapoptotic BCL2-proteins and their role in solid tumours will be discussed. In addition, a comprehensive analysis of current small molecules targeting these antiapoptotic BCL2-proteins (e.g., ABT-737, ABT-263, ABT-199, TW-37, sabutoclax, obatoclax, and MIM1) will be provided including a discussion of the results of any clinical trials. This analysis will summarise the potential of BCL2-inhibitors for the treatment of solid tumours and will unravel novel approaches to utilise these inhibitors in clinical applications.

Delivery of intracellular-acting biologics in pro-apoptotic therapies

The recent elucidation of molecular regulators of apoptosis and their roles in cellular oncogenesis has motivated the development of biomacromolecular anticancer therapeutics that can activate intracellular apoptotic signaling pathways. Pharmaceutical scientists have employed a variety of classes of biologics toward this goal, including antisense oligodeoxynucleotides, small interfering RNA, proteins, antibodies, and peptides. However, stability in the in vivo environment, tumor-specific biodistribution, cell internalization, and localization to the intracellular microenvironment where the targeted molecule is localized pose significant challenges that limit the ability to directly apply intracellular-acting, pro-apoptotic biologics for therapeutic use. Thus, approaches to improve the pharmaceutical properties of therapeutic biomacromolecules are of great significance and have included chemically modifying the bioactive molecule itself or formulation with auxiliary compounds. Recently, promising advances in delivery of pro-apoptotic biomacromolecular agents have been made using tools such as peptide "stapling", cell penetrating peptides, fusogenic peptides, liposomes, nanoparticles, smart polymers, and synergistic combinations of these components. This review will discuss the molecular mediators of cellular apoptosis, the respective mechanisms by which these mediators are dysregulated in cellular oncogenesis, the history and development of both nucleic-acid and amino-acid based drugs, and techniques to achieve intracellular delivery of these biologics. Finally, recent applications where pro-apoptotic functionality has been achieved through delivery of intracellular-acting biomacromolecular drugs will be highlighted.

Antisense oligonucleotide suppression of serum amyloid A reduces amyloid deposition in mice with AA amyloidosis

AA amyloid patients who experience disease progression and develop renal failure have not received sufficient benefit from agents that treat inflammation or infection. We have begun to explore the potential application of antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) to specifically suppress SAA production and thereby reduce amyloid deposition. Proof-of-concept experiments conducted in mice initially examined ASO ability to reduce serum levels of SAA during an acute inflammatory response. Peak SAA levels in ASO-treated mice were reduced as much as 65% relative to levels in saline-treated mice. The extent of suppression was dose-dependent and influenced by the time interval between ASO administration and inflammatory stimulation. Subsequent experiments tested whether ASO suppression of SAA was sufficient to mitigate amyloid deposition. Amyloidosis was induced by amyloid-enhancing factor and silver nitrate injection; ASO treatment was initiated 1 week later and continued 1× or 3× per week; inflammation was re-triggered by subsequent injection(s) of silver nitrate; mice were sacrificed after 4-5 weeks. Examination of tissues by Congo red staining and SAA/AA immunohistochemistry revealed consistently less amyloid in the organs of ASO-treated mice compared to saline-treated counterparts. These findings provide rationale for further investigation of SAA-specific ASOs as a potential therapy for AA amyloidosis.

Harnessing the cell death pathway for targeted cancer treatment

Genotoxic agents have long targeted apoptotic cell death as a primary means of treating cancer. However, the presence of cellular defects in many cancers has contributed to an acquired resistance to apoptotic cell death, lowering the effectiveness of chemo- and radiotherapies. The mechanisms by which cells achieve this resistance to treatment are still being investigated, but an alternative approach is the study of cell death pathways that are mechanistically distinct from apoptosis. These pathways, including autophagy and necrosis, have arisen as attractive targets for cancer therapy. This review will discuss apoptosis, autophagy, and necrosis in the context of tumorigenesis and drug resistance, as well as provide an up-to-date preclinical and clinical review of inhibitors targeting these cell death pathways for multiple cancer types. The goal of these studies is to identify molecular targets that will enhance the efficacy and specificity of current cancer therapies.