Neuropsychiatric Outcomes in UK Military Veterans With Mild Traumatic Brain Injury and Vestibular Dysfunction

Blast Exposure, Tinnitus, Hearing Loss, and Postdeployment Quality of Life in U.S. Veterans: A Longitudinal Analysis

OBJECTIVE

Examine the association between military blast exposure and functional status among veterans with a focus on functional disability as a proxy for quality of life and explore the potential modifying effect of hearing loss on this association.

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective cohort.

SETTING

Multi-institutional tertiary referral centers.

PATIENTS

540 veterans.

EXPOSURE

Self-reported military blast exposure with and without tinnitus; high-frequency hearing loss (yes/no).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

WHO Disability Assessment Schedule 2.0 questionnaires at baseline and annually over 5 years. The odds of membership into three functional disability trajectory groups: low functional disability, moderate functional disability, and high functional disability.

RESULTS

Of 540 veterans, 197 (36.5%) self-reported a blast exposure history, and 106 of 197 (53.8%) reported tinnitus as a direct result of the blast. Blast exposure without tinnitus increased the odds of moderate functional disability compared with low functional disability (odds ratio [OR] = 1.5; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.92-2.51), which strengthened among those with blast with tinnitus (OR, 3.6; 95% CI, 2.1-6.1). Blast exposure without tinnitus also increased the odds of membership to high functional disability versus low functional disability (OR, 2.2; 95% CI, 1.1-4.8). Hearing loss further increased the odds of reporting functional disability. The probability of low functional disability was approximately 60% if there was no history of blast or hearing loss, dropping to 20% if there was blast, tinnitus, and hearing loss history.

CONCLUSIONS

Blast exposure negatively affects the quality of life of veterans, especially when compounded with tinnitus and hearing loss.

Understanding how traumatic brain injury-related changes in fluid biomarkers affect quality of life outcomes in veterans: a prospective observational trial protocol (UNTANGLE)

INTRODUCTION

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major cause of disability, with annual global incidence estimated as 69 million people. Survivors can experience long-term visual changes, altered mental state, neurological deficits and long-term effects that may be associated with mental illness. TBI is prevalent in military personnel due to gunshot wounds, and blast injury. This study aims to evaluate the relationship between evolving visual, biochemical and mental health changes in both military veterans and civilians, suffering from TBI, and detect preliminary indicators of prognosis for TBI recovery, and quality-of-life outcomes.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

UNTANGLE is a 24-month prospective observational pilot study recruiting three patient groups: civilians with acute moderate-severe TBI, military veterans with diagnosis of a previous TBI and a control group of civilians or veterans with no history of a previous TBI. Patients will undergo visual, biochemical and mental health assessments, as well as patient-reported quality of life outcome measures over the course of a 1-year follow-up period.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Ethical approval has been obtained from the Health Research Authority and Health and Care Research Wales with a REC reference number of 23/NW/0203. The results of the study will be presented at scientific meetings and published in peer-reviewed journals, including both civilian and military-related publications. We will also present our findings at national and international meetings of learnt neuroscience and neuropsychiatry and military societies. We anticipate that our pilot study will inform a larger study on the long-term outcomes of TBI and quality of life, specific to military veterans, such that potential interventions may be accessed as quickly as possible.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

ISRCTN13276511.

Relationships between vestibular issues, noise sensitivity, anxiety and prolonged recovery from mild traumatic brain injury among adults: a scoping review

BACKGROUND

We investigated the extent of literature and findings on relationships between vestibular issues, noise sensitivity (NS), and anxiety. We were interested in how relationships among these factors impacted adults' recovery three months or more after mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI).

METHODS

We conducted a scoping review to evaluate the extent of evidence linking relationships between vestibular issues, NS and anxiety with recovery after mTBI. Data relating to study characteristics and key findings were extracted and used to inform a critical narrative synthesis of findings.

RESULTS

After screening and full-text review, we included two studies. Both studies considered the combination of vestibular issues, NS and anxiety and mTBI recovery. Vestibular issues, NS and anxiety were all significantly associated with one another and their presence was the strongest indicator that symptoms would extend beyond three-months after mTBI.

CONCLUSION

Few studies have focused on the relationships that vestibular issues, NS and anxiety have with one another and recovery after mTBI. Given the apparent strong relationships between these factors and prolonged recovery, we highlight this as an area warranting further investigation.

Using Programmable Device Installations to Control Students with Disabilities after Blast Traumatic Brain Injury in 10 Meter Walking Test

Objectives. This study aimed to determine the degree of authenticity for the test implemented using a programmable installation for monitoring the functions of functional mobility, gait, and the state of the vestibular apparatus in students with disabilities who have sustained a blast traumatic brain injury. Material and methods. The study included a total of 39 first-year students with disabilities after an explosive brain injury. The following methods were used: theoretical analysis of scientific and methodological literature, the method of technical modelling, pedagogical testing, pedagogical experiment, and methods of mathematical statistics. In order to ascertain the efficacy of the proposed intervention, a 10-meter walking test was conducted. Results. The result of our study was the development using information systems and networks of a programmable device for the implementation of the 10-meter walking test, which is used to monitor the recovery of functional mobility, gait, and the state of the vestibular apparatus in students with disabilities after an explosive brain injury. The installation was based on a network of sensors organized according to the Arduino microcontroller platform. Acoustic, optical sensors, distance sensors, proximity sensors, presence sensors, and spatial position sensors have been placed to record the results of the test distance. The sensors, having received an information signal about the student passing the test, transmit it to the controller. In the controller, information is identified, processed, calculated and transferred to a personal computer, where it is displayed on the screen and reproduced graphically. The software ensures maintainability throughout the test, as well as efficiency of data processing, calculation of required parameters and their storage. Data processing is implemented using image analysis systems based on neural networks. According to the findings of testing and correlation analysis, indicators’ authenticity degree for the used tests were established, which differed by the means of measuring the results. The level of correlation coefficient between the values for test reliability and validity in the case of fixing the test results using a stopwatch was not found to fall within the “low” and “acceptable” limits, while in the second case, when the results were fixed by a programmed control unit, it reached the “high” level. Conclusions. The use of the developed programmable device in the practical work of inclusive PE provides convenience, functionality, objectivity and reliability of control in the process of rehabilitation of students with disabilities after an explosive craniocerebral injury. What is confirmed by the values of the test authenticity measure obtained during the experiment when fixing the results by the developed installation.

Dizziness Directly Influences Postconcussion Symptoms and Is Predictive of Poorer Mental Health in UK Military Personnel: A Retrospective Analysis

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the contribution of dizziness to postconcussion symptoms, depression, and anxiety symptoms.

SETTING

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) service, Defence Medical Rehabilitation Centre, Stanford Hall.

PARTICIPANTS

Two hundred eighty-three UK military personnel from the Royal Navy, Royal Airforce, Royal Marines, and British Army.

DESIGN

A retrospective analysis of data from the Ministry of Defence medical records database.

MAIN MEASURES

Sixteen-item Rivermead Post Concussion Symptoms Questionnaire, Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-item scale, Patient Health Questionnaire-9, The Dizziness Handicap Inventory.

RESULTS

Injuries from sports or falls were the most common mechanism of mTBI, accounting for 23%, respectively. Chi-square analysis indicated that individuals with dizziness and postconcussion symptoms (PCS) had greater severity of PCS, depression, and anxiety than those with PCS alone. Mediation analysis showed dizziness directly and independently influenced the severity of PCS, despite the indirect effects of mediating depression and anxiety symptoms.

CONCLUSION

Comorbid dizziness and PCS were predictive of poorer mental health compared with PCS alone. In addition, dizziness directly influenced the severity of PCS irrespective of the indirect effects of mental health symptoms. These observations suggest that treating dizziness with vestibular rehabilitation may improve PCS and mental health.

World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule versus Functional Independence Measure in Traumatic Brain Injury

OBJECTIVE

In patients with traumatic brain injury, to compare functioning measured using the 12-item patient and proxy World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule (WHODAS-12) with assessments made by professionals.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

At discharge from rehabilitation, 89 consecutive patients with traumatic brain injury (10 mild, 36 moderate, 43 severe) and their proxies completed the WHODAS-12. Professionals assessed functioning simultaneously using the WHO minimal generic set of domains of functioning and health and Functional Independence Measure (FIM).

RESULTS

From mild to severe traumatic brain injury, increasing disability was found in: sum, component and item scores of patient and proxy WHODAS, except for emotional functions in patients' ratings; in sum and item scores of the WHO minimal generic data-set, except for pain; and in FIM total score and sub-scores. The WHODAS participation component was more impaired than activities. Although proxies rated functioning more impaired than patients, the correlation between patient and proxy WHODAS was strong (0.74). The correlation between patient/proxy WHODAS and FIM was also strong (-0.56 and -0.78, respectively). Proxy WHODAS differentiated mild and moderate traumatic brain injury more accurately than the other assessments.

CONCLUSION

We recommend using the WHODAS-12 when planning patient- and family-oriented rehabilitation services after traumatic brain injury.

Factors That Impact the Long-Term Outcome of Postconcussive Dizziness Among Post-9/11 Veterans

PURPOSE

The primary aim of this study was to examine the factors associated with long-term outcomes of postconcussive disruptive dizziness in Veterans of the post-9/11 wars.

METHOD

For this observational cohort study, the Neurobehavioral Symptom Inventory-Vestibular subscale (NSI-V) score was used as an outcome measure for dizziness in 987 post-9/11 Veterans who indicated disruptive dizziness at an initial Veterans Health Administration Comprehensive Traumatic Brain Injury Evaluation (CTBIE). An NSI-V change score was calculated as the difference in the scores obtained at the initial CTBIE and on a subsequent survey. Differences in the NSI-V change scores were examined for demographics, injury characteristics, comorbidities, and vestibular and balance function variables, and multiple linear regression analyses were used to explore associations among the variables and the NSI-V change score.

RESULTS

The majority of Veterans (61%) demonstrated a decrease in the NSI-V score, suggesting less dizziness on the survey compared with the CTBIE; 16% showed no change; and 22% had a higher score. Significant differences in the NSI-V change score were observed for traumatic brain injury (TBI) status, diagnoses of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), headache and insomnia, and vestibular function. Multivariate regressions revealed significant associations between the NSI-V change score and the initial CTBIE NSI-V score, education level, race/ethnicity, TBI status, diagnoses of PTSD or hearing loss, and vestibular function.

CONCLUSIONS

Postconcussive dizziness can continue for years following an injury. Factors associated with poor prognosis include TBI, diagnoses of PTSD or hearing loss, abnormal vestibular function, increased age, identification as a Black Veteran, and high school education level.

Nanowired Delivery of Cerebrolysin Together with Antibodies to Amyloid Beta Peptide, Phosphorylated Tau, and Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha Induces Superior Neuroprotection in Alzheimer's Disease Brain Pathology Exacerbated by Sleep Deprivation

Sleep deprivation induces amyloid beta peptide and phosphorylated tau deposits in the brain and cerebrospinal fluid together with altered serotonin metabolism. Thus, it is likely that sleep deprivation is one of the predisposing factors in precipitating Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain pathology. Our previous studies indicate significant brain pathology following sleep deprivation or AD. Keeping these views in consideration in this review, nanodelivery of monoclonal antibodies to amyloid beta peptide (AβP), phosphorylated tau (p-tau), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) in sleep deprivation-induced AD is discussed based on our own investigations. Our results suggest that nanowired delivery of monoclonal antibodies to AβP with p-tau and TNF-α induces superior neuroprotection in AD caused by sleep deprivation, not reported earlier.

Vestibular and balance function in veterans with chronic dizziness associated with mild traumatic brain injury and blast exposure

The purpose of this study was to examine vestibular and balance function in individuals with chronic dizziness associated with mTBI/blast. A prospective case-control study design was used to examine ocular motor, vestibular function, and postural stability in veterans with symptoms of dizziness and/or imbalance following an mTBI or blast exposure (n = 77) and a healthy control group (n = 32). Significant group differences were observed for saccadic accuracy, VOR gain during slow harmonic acceleration at 0.01 Hz, cervical vestibular evoked myogenic potentials asymmetry ratio, composite equilibrium score on the sensory organization test, total Dynamic Gait Index score, and gait. The frequency of test abnormalities in participants with mTBI/blast ranged from 0 to 70% across vestibular, ocular motor, and balance/gait testing, with the most frequent abnormalities occurring on tests of balance and gait function. Seventy-two percent of the mTBI/blast participants had abnormal findings on one or more of the balance and gait tests. Vestibular test abnormalities occurred in ~34% of the individuals with chronic dizziness and mTBI/blast, and abnormalities occurred more frequently for measures of otolith organ function (25% for cVEMP and 18% for oVEMP) than for measures of hSCC function (8% for SHA and 6% for caloric test). Abnormal ocular motor function occurred in 18% of the mTBI/blast group. These findings support the need for comprehensive vestibular and balance assessment in individuals with dizziness following mTBI/blast-related injury.

Neuro-Visual and Vestibular Manifestations of Concussion and Mild TBI

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Mild traumatic brain injury, or concussion, is a major cause of disability. Vestibular and visual dysfunction following concussion is common and can negatively affect patients' well-being and prolong recovery. Etiologies of visual and vestibular symptoms are numerous, including ocular, neuro-ophthalmic, otologic, and neuro-vestibular conditions. Some etiologies are benign and may be treatable, while others are potentially vision or life-threatening, making a focused history and examination essential. This review offers an approach to the evaluation and treatment of the most common neuro-visual and vestibular impairments that may result from concussion.

RECENT FINDINGS

Treatment of concussion including exercise, computerized programs, transcranial magnetic stimulation, gene therapy, stem cell therapy, and nanoparticles has shown promise. Many novel therapies are in the pipework for visual and vestibular recovery after concussion; however, the treatment mainstay remains therapy and evaluation for co-existing diseases.

Perspectives on Primary Blast Injury of the Brain: Translational Insights Into Non-inertial Low-Intensity Blast Injury

Most traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) during military deployment or training are clinically "mild" and frequently caused by non-impact blast exposures. Experimental models were developed to reproduce the biological consequences of high-intensity blasts causing moderate to severe brain injuries. However, the pathophysiological mechanisms of low-intensity blast (LIB)-induced neurological deficits have been understudied. This review provides perspectives on primary blast-induced mild TBI models and discusses translational aspects of LIB exposures as defined by standardized physical parameters including overpressure, impulse, and shock wave velocity. Our mouse LIB-exposure model, which reproduces deployment-related scenarios of open-field blast (OFB), caused neurobehavioral changes, including reduced exploratory activities, elevated anxiety-like levels, impaired nesting behavior, and compromised spatial reference learning and memory. These functional impairments associate with subcellular and ultrastructural neuropathological changes, such as myelinated axonal damage, synaptic alterations, and mitochondrial abnormalities occurring in the absence of gross- or cellular damage. Biochemically, we observed dysfunctional mitochondrial pathways that led to elevated oxidative stress, impaired fission-fusion dynamics, diminished mitophagy, decreased oxidative phosphorylation, and compensated cell respiration-relevant enzyme activity. LIB also induced increased levels of total tau, phosphorylated tau, and amyloid β peptide, suggesting initiation of signaling cascades leading to neurodegeneration. We also compare translational aspects of OFB findings to alternative blast injury models. By scoping relevant recent research findings, we provide recommendations for future preclinical studies to better reflect military-operational and clinical realities. Overall, better alignment of preclinical models with clinical observations and experience related to military injuries will facilitate development of more precise diagnosis, clinical evaluation, treatment, and rehabilitation.

Chronic Anxiety- and Depression-Like Behaviors Are Associated With Glial-Driven Pathology Following Repeated Blast Induced Neurotrauma

Long-term neuropsychiatric impairments have become a growing concern following blast-related traumatic brain injury (bTBI) in active military personnel and Veterans. Neuropsychiatric impairments such as anxiety and depression are common comorbidities that Veterans report months, even years following injury. To understand these chronic behavioral outcomes following blast injury, there is a need to study the link between anxiety, depression, and neuropathology. The hippocampus and motor cortex (MC) have been regions of interest when studying cognitive deficits following blast exposure, but clinical studies of mood disorders such as major depressive disorder (MDD) report that these two regions also play a role in the manifestation of anxiety and depression. With anxiety and depression being common long-term outcomes following bTBI, it is imperative to study how chronic pathological changes within the hippocampus and/or MC due to blast contribute to the development of these psychiatric impairments. In this study, we exposed male rats to a repeated blast overpressure (~17 psi) and evaluated the chronic behavioral and pathological effects on the hippocampus and MC. Results demonstrated that the repeated blast exposure led to depression-like behaviors 36 weeks following injury, and anxiety-like behaviors 2-, and 52-weeks following injury. These behaviors were also correlated with astrocyte pathology (glial-fibrillary acid protein, GFAP) and dendritic alterations (Microtubule-Associated Proteins, MAP2) within the hippocampus and MC regions at 52 weeks. Overall, these findings support the premise that chronic glial pathological changes within the brain contribute to neuropsychiatric impairments following blast exposure.

Persistent posttraumatic headaches and functioning in veterans: Injury type can matter

OBJECTIVE

To characterize the relationship between head trauma types (blast injury, blunt injury, combined blast+blunt injury) with subsequent headache presentations and functioning.

BACKGROUND

Posttraumatic headaches (PTHs), the most common sequelae of traumatic brain injury (TBI), are painful and disabling. More than 400,000 veterans report having experienced a TBI, and understanding the predictors of PTHs may guide treatment developments.

METHODS

This study used a nested-cohort design analyzing baseline data from a randomized clinical trial of cognitive behavioral therapy for PTH (N = 190). Participants had PTH (from blast and/or blunt head trauma) and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The Structured Diagnostic Interview for Headache-Revised and Ohio State University Traumatic Brain Injury Identification Method were used to phenotype headaches and head injury histories, respectively.

RESULTS

Individuals with persistent PTHs after a combined blast and blunt head trauma were more likely (OR =3.45; 95% CI [1.41, 8.4]) to experience chronic (vs. episodic) PTHs compared with the blunt trauma only group (23/33, 70% vs. 26/65, 40%, respectively); and they were more likely (OR =2.51; 95% CI [1.07, 5.9]) to experience chronic PTH compared with the blast trauma only group (44/92, 48%). There were no differences between head injury type on headache-related disability, depression symptoms, or severity of PTSD symptoms.

CONCLUSION

The combination of blast and blunt injuries was associated with headache chronicity, but not headache disability. Considering the refractory nature of chronic headaches, the potential added and synergistic effects of distinct head injuries warrant further study.

Epidemiology of Chronic Effects of Traumatic Brain Injury

Although many patients diagnosed with traumatic brain injury (TBI), particularly mild TBI, recover from their symptoms within a few weeks, a small but meaningful subset experience symptoms that persist for months or years after injury and significantly impact quality of life for the person and their family. Factors associated with an increased likelihood of negative TBI outcomes include not only characteristics of the injury and injury mechanism, but also the person’s age, pre-injury status, comorbid conditions, environment, and propensity for resilience. In this article, as part of the Brain Trauma Blueprint: TBI State of the Science framework, we examine the epidemiology of long-term outcomes of TBI, including incidence, prevalence, and risk factors. We identify the need for increased longitudinal, global, standardized, and validated assessments on incidence, recovery, and treatments, as well as standardized assessments of the influence of genetics, race, ethnicity, sex, and environment on TBI outcomes. By identifying how epidemiological factors contribute to TBI outcomes in different groups of persons and potentially impact differential disease progression, we can guide investigators and clinicians toward more-precise patient diagnosis, along with tailored management, and improve clinical trial designs, data evaluation, and patient selection criteria.

Small subdural hemorrhages: Does size of intracranial hemorrhage impact symptoms after discharge?

INTRO

Patients with small intracranial hemorrhage at initial presentation (ICHi) have a relatively uneventful hospital course, as compared with larger ICHi. In this study, we tested the null hypothesis that ICHi does not impact the symptom profile of patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) after discharge.

METHODS

In this retrospective study, TBI patients over 18 years of age with a head CT at initial presentation and at least one follow-up visit between 2015 and 2018 were included. Those with vascular risk factors, major psychiatric comorbidities, neurologic disorders, and TBI / CT evidence of ICH within five years were excluded. Patients were stratified based on the presence or absence of ICHi. Symptom profiles were characterized during early (0-3 months post-TBI) and late follow up (4-12 months post-TBI). An adapted 15-question Post-Concussion Symptom Scale and a vestibulo-oculomotor (VOM) exam were assessed by a TBI specialist. We compared the age adjusted clinical symptom profiles between those with and without ICHi.

RESULTS

69 patients met inclusion/exclusion criteria. 26 (37.8%) had ICHi and 43 (62.32%) did not have ICH. The severity of measured symptoms or VOM findings were not more severe in those with ICHi. Age-adjusted analyses did not show any effect on these outcomes.

CONCLUSION

ICHi does not impact the symptom profile of patients with TBI in either short or long term.

Glial Activation in the Thalamus Contributes to Vestibulomotor Deficits Following Blast-Induced Neurotrauma

Vestibular impairment has become a frequent consequence following blast-related traumatic brain injury (bTBI) in military personnel and Veterans. Behavioral outcomes such as depression, fear and anxiety are also common comorbidities of bTBI. To accelerate pre-clinical research and therapy developments, there is a need to study the link between behavioral patterns and neuropathology. The transmission of neurosensory information often involves a pathway from the cerebral cortex to the thalamus, and the thalamus serves crucial integrative functions within vestibular processing. Pathways from the thalamus also connect with the amygdala, suggesting thalamic and amygdalar contributions to anxiolytic behavior. Here we used behavioral assays and immunohistochemistry to determine the sub-acute and early chronic effects of repeated blast exposure on the thalamic and amygdala nuclei. Behavioral results indicated vestibulomotor deficits at 1 and 3 weeks following repeated blast events. Anxiety-like behavior assessments depicted trending increases in the blast group. Astrogliosis and microglia activation were observed upon post-mortem pathological examination in the thalamic region, along with a limited glia response in the amygdala at 4 weeks. These findings are consistent with a diffuse glia response associated with bTBI and support the premise that dysfunction within the thalamic nuclei following repeated blast exposures contribute to vestibulomotor impairment.