Can perioperative psychological interventions decrease the risk of postsurgical pain and disability? A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

Demand analysis of transitional care for patients undergoing minimally invasive cardiac interventions with AI-driven solutions: a mixed-methods approach

AIMS

Minimally invasive cardiac intervention (MICI) patients remain at high risk of readmission and mortality during their post-discharge phase, with 30-day readmission rates of up to 10%. Although technological innovations, especially AI-driven solutions, hold promise for improving outcomes, there is a pressing need to clarify the full spectrum of patient demands during the transition from hospital to home. This study aimed to systematically identify these demands to guide the development of AI-driven solutions that reduce readmission rates and improve clinical outcomes.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A convergent parallel mixed-methods design was employed to systematically identify patient demands and inform the development of AI-driven interventions in transitional care. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected from 137 MICI patients recruited from four hospitals (June-August 2024). Quantitatively, a 23-item survey was analyzed using the Kano model, revealing no "must-be" demands-indicating that patients were accustomed to a lack of guidance post-discharge. However, health monitoring, medication guidance, symptom management, and personalized exercise plans were identified as "one-dimensional" demands that significantly impact patient satisfaction. Additionally, continuous exercise monitoring and dietary planning emerged as "attractive" features that could enhance care quality without negatively affecting satisfaction if absent. Qualitative interviews uncovered the importance of comorbidity management, psychological support and financial transparency, which were not fully captured in the survey data. The integration of these findings underscores the need for AI-driven personalized health monitoring systems and knowledge-based AI tools to revolutionize the transitional care process for MICI patients.

CONCLUSION

This integrated analysis highlights the significant care demands of MICI patients during the transition from hospital to home. Key recommendations include: (1) deploying AI-driven health monitoring, medication guidance, and symptom management systems, (2) designing personalized exercise and dietary tools, and (3) creating accessible, knowledge-based platforms for reliable medical information. In addition, comorbidity management, psychological support and financial transparency are areas that call for our attention. By aligning with these patient-centered demands and leveraging AI's capabilities, future transitional care interventions-particularly in China have the potential to address healthcare staffing constraints and improve patient outcomes. However, due to the limitations of our study, these insights require further validation and exploration.

Current state of psychological therapies for children and adults with chronic pain: Where next?

Pain is influenced by biological, psychological and social factors. Whilst analgesics are often prescribed for chronic pain, they provide little benefit for most patients. Psychological therapies manage pain and disability in children and adults with chronic pain. Evidence for cognitive behavioural therapies is the most robust in the field, although benefits are modest. Technological innovation has led to Internet-delivered therapies, but innovation in research often lags behind technological developments due to funding and regulation. Despite the promising outlook, critical gaps in our knowledge of how to manage pain need addressing for both adults and children and their parents. Here we summarise the evidence base of psychological therapies using Cochrane reviews, gaps, and the role of preventing chronic pain onset.

The relationship between preoperative sleep disturbance and acute postoperative pain control: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Poor preoperative sleep quality and impaired sleep continuity may heighten acute postoperative pain intensity and increase analgesic consumption, with negative implications for recovery, mental and physical health. The main objective of the current review was to investigate the relationship between preoperative sleep disturbance and acute postoperative pain control. Four electronic databases were systematically searched from inception to December 2023. Two reviewers screened articles, extracted data, and assessed risk of bias for each included study. The search identified 26 prospective cohort studies and 3 retrospective cohort studies (16104 participants). Of the 29 included studies, 23 focused on preoperative insomnia symptoms, and three studies each focused on preoperative objective sleep continuity or sleep-disordered breathing. Meta-analysis, based on five studies with 1226 participants, showed that clinically significant preoperative insomnia symptoms were associated with moderate to severe pain intensity on the first postoperative day (odds ratio 2.69 (95 % confidence interval 2.03-3.57), p < 0.0001). Qualitative analysis showed relatively robust associations between preoperative insomnia symptoms, impaired sleep continuity and poorer acute, as well as subacute, postoperative pain control. Findings related to obstructive sleep apnea syndrome were mixed. Given that insomnia is a potentially modifiable risk factor, interventions targeting sleep prior to surgery may improve postoperative pain control.

Presurgical anxiety and acute postsurgical pain predict worse chronic pain profiles after total knee/hip arthroplasty

INTRODUCTION

Total joint arthroplasties generally achieve good outcomes, but chronic pain and disability are a significant burden after these interventions. Acknowledging relevant risk factors can inform preventive strategies. This study aimed to identify chronic pain profiles 6 months after arthroplasty using the ICD-11 (International Classification of Diseases) classification and to find pre and postsurgical predictors of these profiles.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Patients undergoing total knee/hip arthroplasty (n = 209, female = 54.5%) were assessed before surgery, 48 h and 6 months postsurgery for sociodemographic, pain-related, disability and psychological characteristics. K-means-constrained cluster analysis identified chronic pain profiles based on 6-month pain intensity, pain interference and disability. Chi-square tests or one-way ANOVA explored between-cluster differences. Multinomial regression identified predictors of cluster membership. Separate models analyzed presurgical (model 1), postsurgical (model 2) and a combination of previously significant pre and postsurgical (model 3) variables.

RESULTS

A three-cluster solution was selected, translating increasingly worse chronic pain severity: cluster 1 (C1, n = 129), cluster 2 (C2, n = 60) and cluster 3 (C3, n = 20). There were presurgical differences among clusters in the presence of other painful sites (p = 0.013, ϕc = 0.20), pain interference (p = 0.038, η2 = 0.031), disability (p = 0.020, η2 = 0.037), pain catastrophizing (p = 0.019, η2 = 0.060), anxiety (p < 0.001, η2 = 0.087), depression (p = 0.017; η2 = 0.039), self-efficacy (p = 0.018, η2 = 0.038) and satisfaction with life (p = 0.034, η2 = 0.032), postsurgical pain frequency (p = 0.003, ϕc = 0.243) and intensity (p < 0.001, η2 = 0.101). In model 1, disability predicted C2 (OR = 1.040) and anxiety predicted C3 (OR = 1.154) membership. In model 2, pain intensity predicted C3 (OR = 1.690) membership. In model 3, presurgical anxiety predicted C3 (OR = 1.181) and postsurgical pain intensity predicted C2 (OR = 1.234) and C3 (OR = 1.679) membership.

CONCLUSIONS

Most patients had low chronic pain severity at 6 months, but a relevant percentage exhibited poor outcomes. Membership to different outcome profiles was predicted by presurgical anxiety and acute postsurgical pain. These seem promising targets to prevent pain chronification that should be optimized for better surgical outcomes.

Same patient but different worlds: A state-of-the-art review translating best practice psychosocial care from musculoskeletal care to the orthopaedic context

BACKGROUND

Individuals with chronic musculoskeletal conditions experience persistent pain and disability that has deleterious impacts on physical function, psychological health, social engagement, relationships, and work participation. This impact is greater in people with psychosocial risk factors, and best practice musculoskeletal care recommends a biopsychosocial approach to management. Orthopaedic surgery is often an effective management approach for chronic musculoskeletal conditions, but research has only recently explored the links between differing patient outcomes after orthopaedic surgery and psychosocial risk factors. Implementing biopsychosocial approaches to musculoskeletal care has taken great strides in the primary care setting however, implementation of the biopsychosocial approach in orthopaedic surgery brings complexity as the context changes from primary care to hospital based secondary care. The aim of this review therefore is to explore implementation of psychosocial care in the elective orthopaedic surgery context, informed by evidence in musculoskeletal care.

ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS

Several composite screening tools for psychosocial factors or 'yellow flags' are recommended for use in primary care for musculoskeletal conditions alongside a comprehensive patient interview. However, in the orthopaedic surgery context, composite measures have focused on discharge destination, and there is not a universal approach to comprehensive patient interview incorporating a biopsychosocial approach. A range of biopsychosocial approaches to musculoskeletal conditions have been developed for the primary care setting, yet few have been explored in the context of orthopaedic surgery.

IMPLEMENTATION OF PSYCHOSOCIAL CARE

Implementing best practice psychosocial care into the orthopaedic context has enormous potential for all stakeholders, but several barriers exist at the level of the individual patient and practitioner, workforce, health service and society. We have discussed key considerations for implementation including workforce composition, patient-centred care and shared decision making, health literacy, continuity of care, and consideration of preferences for women and culturally diverse communities.

CONCLUSION

This review considers current literature exploring implementation of psychosocial care into the orthopaedic surgery context, informed by current research in musculoskeletal care. This presents a critical opportunity for orthopaedic surgery to provide optimised, equitable, high-value, patient-centred care.

Prognostic clinical prediction models for acute post-surgical pain in adults: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Acute post-surgical pain is managed inadequately in many patients undergoing surgery. Several prognostic risk prediction models have been developed to identify patients at high risk of developing moderate to severe acute post-surgical pain. The aim of this systematic review was to describe and evaluate the methodological conduct of these prediction models.

METHODS

We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE and CINAHL for studies of prognostic risk prediction models for acute post-surgical pain using predetermined criteria. Prediction model performance was evaluated according to discrimination and calibration. Adherence to TRIPOD guidelines was assessed. Risk of bias and applicability was independently assessed by two reviewers using the prediction model risk of bias assessment tool.

RESULTS

We included 14 studies reporting on 17 prediction models. The most common predictors identified in final prediction models included age; surgery type; sex or gender; anxiety or fear of surgery; pre-operative pain intensity; pre-operative analgesic use; pain catastrophising; and expected surgical incision size. Discrimination, measured by the area under receiver operating characteristic curves or c-statistic, ranged from 0.61 to 0.83. Calibration was only reported for seven models. The median (IQR [range]) overall adherence rate to TRIPOD items was 62 (53-66 [47-72])%. All prediction models were at high risk of bias.

CONCLUSIONS

Effective prediction models could support the prevention and treatment of acute post-surgical pain; however, existing models are at high risk of bias which may affect their reliability to inform practice. Consideration should be given to the goals, timing of intended use and desired outcomes of a prediction model before development.

Management of Depression and Anxiety in Perioperative Medicine

This Clinical Focus Review summarizes contemporary best practices, recent clinically relevant research, and pertinent unanswered questions related to perioperative screening and treatment of anxiety and depression.

Integrating mechanistic-based and classification-based concepts into perioperative pain management: an educational guide for acute pain physicians

Chronic pain begins with acute pain. Physicians tend to classify pain by duration (acute vs chronic) and mechanism (nociceptive, neuropathic and nociplastic). Although this taxonomy may facilitate diagnosis and documentation, such categories are to some degree arbitrary constructs, with significant overlap in terms of mechanisms and treatments. In clinical practice, there are myriad different definitions for chronic pain and a substantial portion of chronic pain involves mixed phenotypes. Classification of pain based on acuity and mechanisms informs management at all levels and constitutes a critical part of guidelines and treatment for chronic pain care. Yet specialty care is often siloed, with advances in understanding lagging years behind in some areas in which these developments should be at the forefront of clinical practice. For example, in perioperative pain management, enhanced recovery protocols are not standardized and tend to drive treatment without consideration of mechanisms, which in many cases may be incongruent with personalized medicine and mechanism-based treatment. In this educational document, we discuss mechanisms and classification of pain as it pertains to commonly performed surgical procedures. Our goal is to provide a clinical reference for the acute pain physician to facilitate pain management decision-making (both diagnosis and therapy) in the perioperative period.

Benefits, Recruitment, Dropout, and Acceptability of the Strength Back Digital Health Intervention for Patients Undergoing Spinal Surgery: Nonrandomized, Qualitative, and Quantitative Pilot Feasibility Study

BACKGROUND

Patients undergoing spinal surgery report high levels of insecurity, pain, stress, and anxiety before and after surgery. Unfortunately, there is no guarantee that surgery will resolve all issues; postsurgical recovery often entails moderate to severe postoperative pain, and some patients undergoing spinal surgery do not experience (long-term) pain relief after surgery. Therefore, focusing on sustainable coping skills and resilience is crucial for these patients. A digital health intervention based on acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) and positive psychology (PP) was developed to enhance psychological flexibility and well-being and reduce postsurgical pain.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was 3-fold: to explore the potential benefits for patients undergoing spinal surgery of the digital ACT and PP intervention Strength Back (research question [RQ] 1), explore the feasibility of a future randomized controlled trial in terms of recruitment and dropout (RQ 2), and assess the acceptability of Strength Back by patients undergoing spinal surgery (RQ 3).

METHODS

We used a nonrandomized experimental design with an intervention group (n=17) and a control group (n=20). To explore the potential benefits of the intervention, participants in both groups filled out questionnaires before and after surgery. These questionnaires included measurements of pain intensity (Numeric Pain Rating Scale), pain interference (Multidimensional Pain Inventory), anxiety and depression (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale), valued living (Engaged Living Scale), psychological flexibility (Psychological Inflexibility in Pain Scale), and mental well-being (Mental Health Continuum-Short Form). Semistructured interviews combined with log data and scores on the Twente Engagement With eHealth Technologies Scale were used to assess the acceptability of the intervention.

RESULTS

A significant improvement over time in emotional (V=99; P=.03) and overall (V=55; P=.004) well-being (Mental Health Continuum-Short Form) was observed only in the intervention group. In addition, the intervention group showed a significantly larger decline in pain intensity (Numeric Pain Rating Scale) than did the control group (U=75; P=.003). Of the available weekly modules on average 80% (12/15) was completed by patients undergoing spinal fusion and 67% (6/9) was completed by patients undergoing decompression surgery. A total of 68% (17/25) of the participants used the intervention until the final interview. Most participants (15/17, 88%) in the intervention group would recommend the intervention to future patients.

CONCLUSIONS

This pilot feasibility study showed that combining ACT and PP in a digital health intervention is promising for patients undergoing spinal surgery as the content was accepted by most of the participants and (larger) improvements in pain intensity and well-being were observed in the intervention group. A digital intervention for patients undergoing (spinal) surgery can use teachable moments, when patients are open to learning more about the surgery and rehabilitation afterward. A larger randomized controlled trial is now warranted.

Trials We Cannot Trust: Investigating Their Impact on Systematic Reviews and Clinical Guidelines in Spinal Pain

We previously conducted an exploration of the trustworthiness of a group of clinical trials of cognitive-behavioral therapy and exercise in spinal pain. We identified multiple concerns in 8 trials, judging them untrustworthy. In this study, we systematically explored the impact of these trials ("index trials") on results, conclusions, and recommendations of systematic reviews and clinical practice guidelines (CPGs). We conducted forward citation tracking using Google Scholar and the citationchaser tool, searched the Guidelines International Network library and National Institute of Health and Care Excellence archive to June 2022 to identify systematic reviews and CPGs. We explored how index trials impacted their findings. Where reviews presented meta-analyses, we extracted or conducted sensitivity analyses for the outcomes of pain and disability, to explore how the exclusion of index trials affected effect estimates. We developed and applied an 'Impact Index' to categorize the extent to which index studies impacted their results. We included 32 unique reviews and 10 CPGs. None directly raised concerns regarding the veracity of the trials. Across meta-analyses (55 comparisons), the removal of index trials reduced effect sizes by a median of 58% (Inter Quartlie Range (IQR) 40-74). 85% of comparisons were classified as highly, 3% as moderately, and 11% as minimally impacted. Nine out of 10 reviews conducting narrative synthesis drew positive conclusions regarding the intervention tested. Nine out of 10 CPGs made positive recommendations for the intervention(s) evaluated. This cohort of trials, with concerns regarding trustworthiness, has substantially impacted the results of systematic reviews and guideline recommendations. PERSPECTIVE: We found that a group of trials of CBT for spinal pain with concerns relating to their trustworthiness has had substantial impacts on the analyses and conclusions of systematic reviews and clinical practice guidelines. This highlights the need for a greater focus on the trustworthiness of studies in evidence appraisal. PRE-REGISTRATION: Our protocol was preregistered on the Open Science Framework: https://osf.io/m92ax/.

Mechanisms inherent in acute-to-chronic pain after surgery - risk, diagnostic, predictive, and prognostic factors

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Pain is an expected consequence of a surgery, but it is far from being well controlled. One major complication of acute pain is its risk of persistency beyond healing. This so-called chronic post-surgical pain (CPSP) is defined as new or increased pain due to surgery that lasts for at least 3 months after surgery. CPSP is frequent, underlies a complex bio-psycho-social process and constitutes an important socioeconomic challenge with significant impact on patients' quality of life. Its importance has been recognized by its inclusion in the eleventh version of the ICD (International Classification of Diseases).

RECENT FINDINGS

Evidence for most pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions preventing CPSP is inconsistent. Identification of associated patient-related factors, such as psychosocial aspects, comorbidities, surgical factors, pain trajectories, or biomarkers may allow stratification and selection of treatment options based on underlying individual mechanisms. Consequently, the identification of patients at risk and implementation of individually tailored, preventive, multimodal treatment to reduce the risk of transition from acute to chronic pain is facilitated.

SUMMARY

This review will give an update on current knowledge on mechanism-based risk, prognostic and predictive factors for CPSP in adults, and preventive and therapeutic approaches, and how to use them for patient stratification in the future.

Effectiveness of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) for the Management of Postsurgical Pain: Study Protocol of a Randomized Controlled Trial (SPINE-ACT Study)

Research on the use of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) for patients with degenerative lumbar pathology awaiting surgery are limited. However, there is evidence to suggest that this psychological therapy may be effective in improving pain interference, anxiety, depression, and quality of life. This is the protocol for a randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate the effectiveness of ACT compared to treatment as usual (TAU) for people with degenerative lumbar pathology who are candidates for surgery in the short term. A total of 102 patients with degenerative lumbar spine pathology will be randomly assigned to TAU (control group) or ACT + TAU (intervention group). Participants will be assessed after treatment and at 3-, 6-, and 12-month follow-ups. The primary outcome will be the mean change from baseline on the Brief Pain Inventory (pain interference). Secondary outcomes will include changes in pain intensity, anxiety, depression, pain catastrophizing, fear of movement, quality of life, disability due to low back pain (LBP), pain acceptance, and psychological inflexibility. Linear mixed models will be used to analyze the data. Additionally, effect sizes and number needed to treat (NNT) will be calculated. We posit that ACT may be used to help patients cope with the stress and uncertainty associated with their condition and the surgery itself.

Military Veterans' Perspectives on Postoperative Opioid Use: A Secondary Analysis of Qualitative Data

PURPOSE

This qualitative analysis of interviews with surgical patients who received a brief perioperative psychological intervention, in conjunction with standard medical perioperative care, elucidates patient perspectives on the use of pain self-management skills in relation to postoperative analgesics.

DESIGN

This study is a secondary analysis of qualitative data from a randomized controlled trial.

METHODS

Participants (N = 21) were rural-dwelling United States Military Veterans from a mixed surgical sample who were randomized to receive a manual-based, telephone-based Perioperative Pain Self-management intervention consisting of a total of four pre- and postoperative contacts. Semi-structured qualitative interviews elicited participant feedback on the cognitive-behavioral intervention. Data was analyzed by two qualitative experts using MAXQDA software. Key word analyses focused on mention of analgesics in interviews.

FINDINGS

Interviews revealed a dominant theme of ambivalence towards postoperative use of opioids. An additional theme concerned the varied ways acquiring pain self-management skills impacted postoperative opioid (and non-opioid analgesic) consumption. Participants reported that employment of pain self-management strategies reduced reliance on pharmacology for pain relief, prolonged the time between doses, took the "edge off" pain, and increased pain management self-efficacy.

CONCLUSIONS

Perioperative patient education may benefit from inclusion of teaching non-pharmacologic pain self-management skills and collaborative planning with patients regarding how to use these skills in conjunction with opioid and non-opioid analgesics. Perianesthesia nurses may be in a critical position to provide interdisciplinary postoperative patient education that may optimize postoperative pain management while minimizing risks associated with prolonged opioid use.

Can perioperative psychological interventions reduce chronic pain after surgery?

Chronic post-surgical pain is a relatively common adverse effect following surgery. Several prognostic factors for chronic post-surgical pain have been identified, including psychological states and traits. Psychological factors are modifiable, and perioperative psychological interventions may reduce the incidence of chronic post-surgical pain. A meta-analysis showed preliminary evidence for the benefits of such interventions for the prevention of chronic post-surgical pain. Further research must be conducted to better understand the specific type, intensity, duration and timing of interventions that are most effective. The number of studies in this area has recently increased, with additional randomised controlled trials currently being carried out, which may allow for the development of more robust conclusions in the coming years. In order to implement perioperative psychological care alongside routine surgical interventions, efficient and accessible interventions should be available. In addition, demonstration of cost-effectiveness may be a prerequisite for wider adoption of perioperative psychological interventions in regular healthcare. Offering psychological interventions selectively to patients at risk of chronic post-surgical pain could be a means to increase cost-effectiveness. Stepped-care approaches should also be considered, where the intensity of psychological support is adapted to the needs of the patient.

The mind and the hand

Symptoms are determined in large part by mindsets. Feelings of distress and unhelpful thoughts (misinterpretations) of symptoms account for much of the variability in comfort and capability with the severity of the underlying pathophysiology making a more limited contribution. Incorporating this experimental evidence into the daily practice of hand surgery will help us find ways to develop healthy mindsets, to prioritize the alleviation of distress and the gentle redirection of unhelpful thoughts, to avoid unnecessary surgery, and to provide better psychological and social support for people recovering from injury and surgery.

Acute and subacute postsurgical pain in women with breast cancer: incidence and associations with biopsychosocial predictors-a secondary analysis of a randomized controlled trial

Introduction

Women who undergo breast cancer surgery risk suffering from postsurgical pain long after their surgery. Still, research on postsurgical pain in the subacute phase has been neglected.

Objective

This study aims to investigate the incidence, intensity, unpleasantness, and presurgical predictors of acute and subacute postsurgical pain after breast cancer surgery.

Methods

The study used an observational design through secondary analyses of the control group in a randomized controlled trial. Data from 102 women undergoing breast cancer surgery were included. Levels of acute and subacute pain intensity and unpleasantness were measured using 100 mm Visual Analogue Scales on the day of surgery and 4 weeks postsurgery. Linear regression analyses were performed to identify presurgical biopsychosocial predictors of acute and subacute postsurgical pain.

Results

Average levels of postsurgical pain intensity and unpleasantness were as follows: 22.7 mm for acute pain intensity, 19.0 mm for acute pain unpleasantness, 10.3 mm for subacute pain intensity, and 11.7 mm for subacute pain unpleasantness. Pain expectancy predicted acute pain intensity (R² = 0.04, p = 0.047) and acute unpleasantness (R² = 0.06, p = 0.02). Perceived social support inversely predicted acute pain unpleasantness (R² = 0.04, p = 0.014).

Conclusion

Mild and moderate acute pain intensity and unpleasantness are common after breast cancer surgery, whereas levels of subacute pain intensity and unpleasantness are low. Pain expectancy predicts acute postsurgical pain intensity and unpleasantness, whereas expected social support inversely predicts acute postsurgical pain unpleasantness.

The effect of perioperative psychological interventions on persistent pain, disability, and quality of life in patients undergoing spinal fusion: a systematic review

PURPOSE

Patients undergoing spinal fusion are prone to develop persisting spinal pain that may be related to pre-existent psychological factors. The aim of this review was to summarize the existing evidence about perioperative psychological interventions and to analyze their effect on postoperative pain, disability, and quality of life in adult patients undergoing complex surgery for spinal disorders. Studies investigating any kind of psychological intervention explicitly targeting patients undergoing a surgical fusion on the spine were included.

METHODS

We included articles that analyzed the effects of perioperative psychological interventions on either pain, disability, and/or quality of life in adult patients with a primary diagnosis of degenerative or neoplastic spinal disease, undergoing surgical fusion of the spine. We focused on interventions that had a clearly defined psychological component. Two independent reviewers used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) to perform a systematic review on different databases. Risk of bias was evaluated using the Downs and Black checklist. Given study differences in outcome measures and interventions administered, a meta-analysis was not performed. Instead, a qualitative synthesis of main results of included papers was obtained.

RESULTS

Thirteen studies, conducted between 2004 and 2017, were included. The majority were randomized-controlled trials (85%) and most patients underwent lumbar fusion (92%). Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) was used in nine studies (69%). CBT in the perioperative period may lead to a postoperative reduction in pain and disability in the short-term follow-up compared to care as usual. There was less evidence for an additional effect of CBT at intermediate and long-term follow-up.

CONCLUSION

The existing evidence suggests that a reduction in pain and disability in the short-term, starting from immediately after surgery to 3 months, is likely to be obtained when a CBT approach is used. However, there is inconclusive evidence regarding the long-term effect of a perioperative psychological intervention after spinal fusion surgery. Further research is necessary to better define the frequency, intensity, and timing of such an approach in relation to the surgical intervention, to be able to maximize its effect and be beneficial to patients.

Pain treatment and prophylaxis on pain

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Also in ambulatory surgery, there will usually be a need for analgesic medication to deal with postoperative pain. Even so, a significant proportion of ambulatory surgery patients have unacceptable postoperative pain, and there is a need for better education in how to provide proper prophylaxis and treatment.

RECENT FINDINGS

Postoperative pain should be addressed both pre, intra- and postoperatively. The management should be with a multimodal nonopioid-based procedure specific guideline for the routine cases. In 10-20% of cases, there will be a need to adjust and supplement the basic guideline with extra analgesic measures. This may be because there are contraindications for a drug in the guideline, the procedure is more extensive than usual or the patient has extra risk factors for strong postoperative pain. Opioids should only be used when needed on top of multimodal nonopioid prophylaxis. Opioids should be with nondepot formulations, titrated to effect in the postoperative care unit and eventually continued only when needed for a few days at maximum.

SUMMARY

Multimodal analgesia should start pre or per-operatively and include paracetamol, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), dexamethasone (or alternative glucocorticoid) and local anaesthetic wound infiltration, unless contraindicated in the individual case. Paracetamol and NSAID should be continued postoperatively, supplemented with opioid on top as needed. Extra analgesia may be considered when appropriate and needed. First-line options include nerve blocks or interfascial plane blocks and i.v. lidocaine infusion. In addition, gabapentinnoids, dexmedetomidine, ketamine infusion and clonidine may be used, but adverse effects of sedation, dizziness and hypotension must be carefully considered in the ambulatory setting.

AMAZONE: prevention of persistent pain after breast cancer treatment by online cognitive behavioral therapy-study protocol of a randomized controlled multicenter trial

Background

Surviving breast cancer does not necessarily mean complete recovery to a premorbid state of health. Among the multiple psychological and somatic symptoms that reduce the quality of life of breast cancer survivors, persistent pain after breast cancer treatment (PPBCT) with a prevalence of 15–65% is probably the most invalidating. Once chronic, PPBCT is difficult to treat and requires an individualized multidisciplinary approach. In the past decades, several somatic and psychological risk factors for PPBCT have been identified. Studies aiming to prevent PPBCT by reducing perioperative pain intensity have not yet shown a significant reduction of PPBCT prevalence. Only few studies have been performed to modify psychological distress around breast cancer surgery. The AMAZONE study aims to investigate the effect of online cognitive behavioral therapy (e-CBT) on the prevalence of PPBCT.

Methods

The AMAZONE study is a multicenter randomized controlled trial, with an additional control arm. Patients (n=138) scheduled for unilateral breast cancer surgery scoring high for surgical or cancer-related fears, general anxiety or pain catastrophizing are randomized to receive either five sessions of e-CBT or online education consisting of information about surgery and a healthy lifestyle (EDU). The first session is scheduled before surgery. In addition to the online sessions, patients have three online appointments with a psychotherapist. Patients with low anxiety or catastrophizing scores (n=322) receive treatment as usual (TAU, additional control arm).

Primary endpoint is PPBCT prevalence 6 months after surgery.

Secondary endpoints are PPBCT intensity, the intensity of acute postoperative pain during the first week after surgery, cessation of postoperative opioid use, PPBCT prevalence at 12 months, pain interference, the sensitivity of the nociceptive and non-nociceptive somatosensory system as measured by quantitative sensory testing (QST), the efficiency of endogenous pain modulation assessed by conditioned pain modulation (CPM) and quality of life, anxiety, depression, catastrophizing, and fear of recurrence until 12 months post-surgery.

Discussion

With perioperative e-CBT targeting preoperative anxiety and pain catastrophizing, we expect to reduce the prevalence and intensity of PPBCT. By means of QST and CPM, we aim to unravel underlying pathophysiological mechanisms. The online application facilitates accessibility and feasibility in a for breast cancer patients emotionally and physically burdened time period.

Trial registration

NTR NL9132, registered December 16 2020.