Immunotherapy for Non-small Cell Lung Cancer: Novel Approaches to Improve Patient Outcome

Alternative Splicing in Lung Adenocarcinoma: From Bench to Bedside

Lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) is a highly heterogeneous tumor and the most prevalent pathological type of lung cancer. The alternative splicing (AS) of mRNA enables the generation of multiple protein products from a single gene. This is a tightly regulated process that significantly contributes to the proteome diversity in eukaryotes. Recent multi-omics studies have delineated the splicing profiles that underline LUAD tumorigenesis from initiation to metastasis. Such progress holds robust promise to facilitate the development of screening strategies and individualized therapies. Perturbed AS fosters the emergence of novel neoantigen resources and disturbances in the immune microenvironment, which allow new investigations into modulatory targets for LUAD immunotherapy. This review presents an update on the landscape of dysregulated splicing events in LUAD and the associated mechanisms and theranostic perspectives with unique insights into AS-based immunotherapy, such as Chimeric Antigen Receptor T cell therapy. These AS variants can be used in conjunction with current therapeutic modules in LUAD, allowing bench to bedside translation to combat this highly malignant cancer.

Dendritic cells in triple-negative breast cancer: From pathophysiology to therapeutic applications

Breast cancer is the second most commonly diagnosed cancer in women and the fifth leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. It is a highly heterogeneous disease, consisting of multiple subtypes that vary significantly in clinical characteristics and survival outcomes. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a particularly aggressive and challenging subtype of breast cancer. Several immunotherapeutic approaches have been tested in patients with TNBC to improve disease outcomes, including the administration of dendritic cell (DC)-based vaccines. DCs are a heterogeneous cell population that play a crucial role in bridging the innate and adaptive immune systems. Therefore, DCs have been increasingly used in cancer vaccines due to their ability to prime and boost antigen specific T-cell immune responses. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of TNBC, including potential targets and pharmacological strategies, as well as an overview of DCs and their relevance in TNBC. In addition, we review ongoing clinical trials and shed light on the evolving landscape of DC-based immunotherapy for TNBC.

circRACGAP1 Promotes Proliferation of Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Cells through the miR-1296/CDK2 Pathway

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) have played an essential role in cancer development. This study aimed to illustrate the impact and potential mechanism of circRACGAP1 action in NSCLC development. The expression patterns of circRACGAP1, miR-1296, and CDK2 in NSCLC tissues and cell lines were analysed by RT-qPCR. The function of circRACGAP1 in NSCLC cell proliferation and apoptosis was investigated using the CCK-8 assay, flow cytometry, TUNEL staining, and Western blot. The interaction among circRACGAP1, miR-1296, and CDK2 was clarified by dual-luciferase reporter assay while the correlation was confirmed by the Pearson correlation coefficient. The expression of circRACGAP1 and CDK2 was up-regulated in NSCLC tissues, while the expression of miR-1296 was down-regulated. Cell function studies further revealed that circRACGAP1 could promote NSCLC cell proliferation, accelerate the cell cycle process, up-regulate B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl2) expression, and down-regulate Bcl2-associated X (Bax) expression. miR-1296 was identified as a downstream target to reverse circRACGAP1-mediated cell proliferation. miR-1296 directly targeted the 3'-UTR of CDK2 to regulate proliferation and apoptosis of NSCLC cells. Additionally, the dual-luciferase reporter assay and Pearson correlation coefficient analysis proved that circRACGAP1 acted in NSCLC cells by negatively regulating miR-1296 expression and positively regulating CDK2 expression. In summary, our study revealed that circRACGAP1 promoted NSCLC cell proliferation by regulating the miR-1296/CDK2 pathway, providing potential diagnostic and therapeutic targets for NSCLC.

Fragmented antibodies in non-small cell lung cancer: A novel nano-engineered delivery system for detection and treatment of cancer

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) has a long history of defying traditional cytotoxic treatment. Significant advancements in biotechnology, cancer biology, and immunotherapy have provided new insights that have altered the landscape for the management of NSCLC, clearing the way for a new era of pharmaceuticals in the form of monoclonal antibodies and their fragments. Antibody fragments are superior to monoclonal antibodies because of their small size, which allows them to penetrate cells and tissues effectively. When combined with functional nanocarriers, antibody fragments can target cancer cells while offering improved efficacy and fewer off-target effects. We discuss current topics of interest including anti-CTLA-4 mAbs, Talactoferrin alfa (TLF), and the CYFRA 21-1 biomarker, with brief insights into its novel detection system.

Increased death and exhaustion of CD69high T cells and NK cells are associated with PD-1 antibody application in the in vitro co-culture system

Background

The application of PD-1 monoclonal antibody (mAb) helps to treat non-small cell lung cancer, but acquired resistance has emerged in clinical practice. We tested the hypothesis that acquired resistance of anti-PD-1 immunotherapy is linked to death and exhaustion of activated T and NK cell.

Methods

The co-culture system of HCC827 cells and peripheral mononuclear cells (PBMCs) was established to evaluate the effect of PD-1 mAb on the death rate and exhaustion of T and NK cell. The predisposing role of CD69 for death and exhaustion was validated by using PHA-activated PBMCs of CD69^low NSCLC patients. The 10-colour/three laser flow cytometer was used to test related markers for cell activation, death and exhaustion.

Results

We found that PD-1 mAb increase the death and exhaustion of T cells and NK cells in a dose-dependent way when PBMCs from NSCLC patients whose the percentages of CD69⁺ cells in peripheral blood T cells were greater than 5% (CD69^high NSCLC patients). By analyzing PBMCs from healthy volunteers and CD69^low NSCLC patients, we found that T cells and NK cells can be induced to die by PD-1 mAb after PHA activation, and had a tendency to raise the rate of cell exhaustion.

Conclusions

Our findings imply that increased death and exhaustion of CD69^high T cells and NK cells are associated with ineffective anti-PD-1 immunotherapy in lung cancer. The CD69 expression of T cells and NK cells may be developed as a potential predictor for acquired resistance of anti-PD-1 immunotherapy. These data may provide ideas to guide individualized medication of PD-1 mAb in NSCLC patients.

Oncolytic Vaccinia Virus in Lung Cancer Vaccines

Therapeutic cancer vaccines represent a promising therapeutic modality via the induction of long-term immune response and reduction in adverse effects by specifically targeting tumor-associated antigens. Oncolytic virus, especially vaccinia virus (VV) is a promising cancer treatment option for effective cancer immunotherapy and thus can also be utilized in cancer vaccines. Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is likely to respond to immunotherapy, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors or cancer vaccines, since it has a high tumor mutational burden. In this review, we will summarize recent applications of VV in lung cancer treatment and discuss the potential and direction of VV-based therapeutic vaccines.

The Targeted Therapies Era Beyond the Surgical Point of View: What Spine Surgeons Should Know Before Approaching Spinal Metastases

In the last few years, the treatment of spinal metastases has significantly changed. This is due to the advancements in surgical technique, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy which have enriched the multidisciplinary management. Above all, the field of molecular biology of tumors is in continuous and prosperous evolution. In this review, the molecular markers and new approaches that have radically modified the chemotherapeutic strategy of the most common metastatic neoplasms will be examined together with clinical and surgical implications. The experience and skills of several different medical professionals are mandatory: an interdisciplinary oncology team represents the winning strategy in the treatment of patients with spinal metastases

Effect of combined epidural anaesthesia on tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes in lung adenocarcinoma: a prospective exploratory sub-analysis

BACKGROUND

Regional anaesthesia may have advantages in preserving immune function. Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) are considered indicators of immune response in the tumor microenvironment and used as a prognostic marker in patients after cancer surgery. This study investigated the effects of combined epidural anaesthesia on the number of TILs in patients undergoing surgery for lung adenocarcinoma.

METHODS

Patients undergoing radical resection for primary lung cancer were randomized to receive either combined epidural-general anaesthesia (Epi-GA) or general anaesthesia (GA) in an ongoing randomized controlled trial (ChiCTR-TRC-14004136). Excised adenocarcinoma specimens from patients enrolled between 1 June 2015 and 30 November 2015 were selected for immunohistochemical staining of CD8 and FOXP3 molecules. The numbers of positive lymphocytes were counted and expressed as the number of cells per mm² tumor area.

RESULTS

One hundred and twenty-eight patients were recruited and randomized; 64 patients were included in immunohistochemistry analysis (37 received Epi-GA vs. 27 received GA). The number of CD8⁺ T cells was higher in the Epi-GA group than in the GA group (median [interquartile range]: 292.8 [198.0-418.3] vs. 204.7 [131.1-305.8], P = 0.036); whereas the number of FOXP3⁺ T cells was less in the Epi-GA group than in the GA group (37.6 [14.7-92.3] vs. 99.8 [68.9-168.3], P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

For patients undergoing surgery for lung adenocarcinoma under general anesthesia, use of epidural anaesthesia increased CD8⁺ T cells infiltration but decreased FOXP3⁺ T cells accumulation in tumor tissues. Epidural anaesthesia may affect TILs in a manner that preserves immune function.

A randomized, controlled trial evaluating the efficacy and safety of BTH1677 in combination with bevacizumab, carboplatin, and paclitaxel in first-line treatment of advanced non-small cell lung cancer

Background

BTH1677, a beta-glucan pathogen-associated molecular pattern molecule, drives an anti-cancer immune response in combination with oncology antibody therapies. This phase II study explored the efficacy, pharmacokinetics (PK), and safety of BTH1677 combined with bevacizumab/carboplatin/paclitaxel in patients with untreated advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC).

Methods

Patients were randomized to the BTH1677 arm (N = 61; intravenous [IV] BTH1677, 4 mg/kg, weekly; IV bevacizumab, 15 mg/kg, once each 3-week cycle [Q3W]; IV carboplatin, 6 mg/mL/min Calvert formula area-under-the-curve, Q3W; and IV paclitaxel, 200 mg/m², Q3W) or Control arm (N = 31; bevacizumab/carboplatin/paclitaxel as above). Carboplatin/paclitaxel was discontinued after 4-6 cycles and patients who responded or remained stable received maintenance therapy with BTH1677/bevacizumab (BTH1677 arm) or bevacizumab (Control arm). Efficacy assessments, based on blinded central radiology review, included objective response rate (ORR; primary endpoint), disease control rate, duration of objective response, and progression-free survival. Overall survival and adverse events (AEs) were also assessed.

Results

ORR was higher in the BTH1677 vs Control arm but the difference between groups was not statistically significant (60.4% vs 43.5%; P = .2096). All other clinical endpoints also favored the BTH1677 arm but none statistically differed between arms. PK was consistent with previous studies. Although a higher incidence of Grade 3/4 AEs occurred in the BTH1677 vs Control arm (93.2% vs 66.7%), no unexpected AEs were observed. Serious AEs and discontinuations due to AEs were lower in the BTH1677 vs Control arm.

Conclusions

Improvements in tumor assessments and survival were observed with BTH1677/bevacizumab/carboplatin/paclitaxel compared with control treatment in patients with advanced NSCLC.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov registration ID: NCT00874107. Registered 2 April 2009. First participant was enrolled on 29 September 2009.

Cell death-based treatment of lung adenocarcinoma

The most common type of lung cancer is adenocarcinoma (ADC), comprising around 40% of all lung cancer cases. In spite of achievements in understanding the pathogenesis of this disease and the development of new approaches in its treatment, unfortunately, lung ADC is still one of the most aggressive and rapidly fatal tumor types with overall survival less than 5 years. Lung ADC is often diagnosed at advanced stages involving disseminated metastatic tumors. This is particularly important for the successful development of new approaches in cancer therapy. The high resistance of lung ADC to conventional radiotherapies and chemotherapies represents a major challenge for treatment effectiveness. Here we discuss recent advances in understanding the molecular pathways driving tumor progression and related targeted therapies in lung ADCs. In addition, the cell death mechanisms induced by different treatment strategies and their contribution to therapy resistance are analyzed. The focus is on approaches to overcoming drug resistance in order to improve future treatment decisions.

Tumor Immunology and Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Lung cancer is one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers and the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Although progress in the treatment of advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) has been made over the past decade, the 5-year survival rate in patients with lung cancer remains only 10%–20%. Obviously, new therapeutic options are required for patients with advanced NSCLC and unmet medical needs. Cancer immunotherapy is an evolving treatment modality that uses a patient's own immune systems to fight cancer. Theoretically, cancer immunotherapy can result in long-term cancer remission and may not cause the same side effects as chemotherapy and radiation. Immuno-oncology has become an important focus of basic research as well as clinical trials for the treatment of NSCLC. Immune checkpoint inhibitors are the most promising approach for cancer immunotherapy and they have become the standard of care for patients with advanced NSCLC. This review summarizes basic tumor immunology and the relevant clinical data on immunotherapeutic approaches, especially immune checkpoint inhibitors in NSCLC.

Immunotherapy for Non-small-cell Lung Cancer: Current Status and Future Obstacles

Lung cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. There are 2 major subtypes of lung cancer, non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and small-cell lung cancer (SCLC). Studies show that NSCLC is the more prevalent type of lung cancer that accounts for approximately 80%-85% of cases. Although, various treatment methods, such as chemotherapy, surgery, and radiation therapy have been used to treat lung cancer patients, there is an emergent need to develop more effective approaches to deal with advanced stages of tumors. Recently, immunotherapy has emerged as a new approach to combat with such tumors. The development and success of programmed cell death 1 (PD-1)/program death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) inhibitors and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) blockades in treating metastatic cancers opens a new pavement for the future research. The current mini review discusses the significance of immune checkpoint inhibitors in promoting the death of tumor cells. Additionally, this review also addresses the importance of tumor-specific antigens (neoantigens) in the development of cancer vaccines and major challenges associated with this therapy. Immunotherapy can be a promising approach to treat NSCLC because it stimulates host's own immune system to recognize cancer cells. Therefore, future research should focus on the development of new methodologies to identify novel checkpoint inhibitors and potential neoantigens.

Epigenetic Therapeutics and Their Impact in Immunotherapy of Lung Cancer

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related death in the United States and worldwide. Novel therapeutic developments are critically necessary to improve outcomes for this disease. Aberrant epigenetic change plays an important role in lung cancer development and progression. Therefore, drugs targeting the epigenome are being investigated in the treatment of lung cancer. Monotherapy of epigenetic therapeutics such as DNA methyltransferase inhibitors (DNMTi) and histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) have so far not shown any apparent benefit while one of the clinical trials with the combinations of DNMTi and HDACi showed a small positive signal for treating lung cancer. Combinations of DNMTi and HDACi with chemotherapies have some efficacy but are often limited by increased toxicities. Preclinical data and clinical trial results suggest that combining epigenetic therapeutics with targeted therapies might potentially improve outcomes in lung cancer patients. Furthermore, several clinical studies suggest that the HDACi vorinostat could be used as a radiosensitizer in lung cancer patients receiving radiation therapy. Immune checkpoint blockade therapies are revolutionizing lung cancer management. However, only a minority of lung cancer patients experience long-lasting benefits from immunotherapy. The role of epigenetic reprogramming in boosting the effects of immunotherapy is an area of active investigation. Preclinical studies and early clinical trial results support this approach which may improve lung cancer treatment, with potentially prolonged survival and tolerable toxicity. In this review, we discuss the current status of epigenetic therapeutics and their combination with other antineoplastic therapies, including novel immunotherapies, in lung cancer management.

MicroRNA Based Liquid Biopsy: The Experience of the Plasma miRNA Signature Classifier (MSC) for Lung Cancer Screening

The development of a minimally invasive test, such as liquid biopsy, for early lung cancer detection in its preclinical phase is crucial to improve the outcome of this deadly disease. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are tissue specific, small, non-coding RNAs regulating gene expression, which may act as extracellular messengers of biological signals derived from the cross-talk between the tumor and its surrounding microenvironment. They could thus represent ideal candidates for early detection of lung cancer. In this work, a methodological workflow for the prospective validation of a circulating miRNA test using custom made microfluidic cards and quantitative Real-Time PCR in plasma samples of volunteers enrolled in a lung cancer screening trial is proposed. In addition, since the release of hemolysis-related miRNAs and more general technical issues may affect the analysis, the quality control steps included in the standard operating procedures are also presented. The protocol is reproducible and gives reliable quantitative results; however, when using large clinical series, both pre-analytical and analytical features should be cautiously evaluated.

Mechanism of immune evasion in breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common malignant tumor among women, with high morbidity and mortality. Its onset, development, metastasis, and prognosis vary among individuals due to the interactions between tumors and host immunity. Many diverse mechanisms have been associated with BC, with immune evasion being the most widely studied to date. Tumor cells can escape from the body’s immune response, which targets abnormal components and foreign bodies, using different approaches including modification of surface antigens and modulation of the surrounding environment. In this review, we summarize the mechanisms and factors that impact the immunoediting process and analyze their functions in detail.

Molecular Markers and Targeted Therapeutics in Metastatic Tumors of the Spine: Changing the Treatment Paradigms

STUDY TYPE

A review of the literature.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to discuss the evolution of molecular signatures and the history and development of targeted therapeutics in metastatic tumor types affecting the spinal column.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Molecular characterization of metastatic spine tumors is expected to usher in a revolution in diagnostic and treatment paradigms. Molecular characterization will provide critical information that can be used for initial diagnosis, prognosticating the ideal treatment strategy, assessment of treatment efficacy, surveillance and monitoring recurrence, and predicting complications, clinical outcome, and overall survival in patients diagnosed with metastatic cancers to the spinal column.

METHODS

A review of the literature was performed focusing on illustrative examples of the role that molecular-based therapeutics have played in clinical outcomes for patients diagnosed with metastatic tumor types affecting the spinal column.

RESULTS

The impact of molecular therapeutics including receptor tyrosine kinases and immune checkpoint inhibitors and the ability of molecular signatures to provide prognostic information are discussed in metastatic breast cancer, lung cancer, prostate cancer, melanoma, and renal cell cancer affecting the spinal column.

CONCLUSION

For the providers who will ultimately counsel patients diagnosed with metastases to the spinal column, molecular advancements will radically alter the management/surgical paradigms utilized. Ultimately, the translation of these molecular advancements into routine clinical care will greatly improve the quality and quantity of life for patients diagnosed with spinal malignancies and provide better overall outcomes and counseling for treating physicians.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

N/A.

Optimizing the Detection of Circulating Markers to Aid in Early Lung Cancer Detection

Improving early detection of lung cancer is critical to improving lung cancer survival. Studies have shown that computerized tomography (CT) screening can reduce mortality from lung cancer, but this involves risks of radiation exposure and can identify non-cancer lung nodules that lead to unnecessary interventions for some. There is a critical need to develop alternative, less invasive methods to identify patients who have early-stage lung cancer. The detection of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are a promising area of research, but current technology is limited by a low yield of CTCs. Alternate studies are investigating circulating nucleic acids and proteins as possible tumor markers. It is critical to develop innovative methods for early lung cancer detection that may include CTCs or other markers that are low-risk and low-cost, yet specific and sensitive, to facilitate improved survival by diagnosing the disease when it is surgically curable.

High Expression of PTGR1 Promotes NSCLC Cell Growth via Positive Regulation of Cyclin-Dependent Protein Kinase Complex

Lung cancer has been the most common cancer and the main cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide for several decades. PTGR1 (prostaglandin reductase 1), as a bifunctional enzyme, has been involved in the occurrence and progression of cancer. However, its impact on human lung cancer is rarely reported. In this study, we found that PTGR1 was overexpressed in lung cancer based on the analyses of Oncomine. Moreover, lentivirus-mediated shRNA knockdown of PTGR1 reduced cell viability in human lung carcinoma cells 95D and A549 by MTT and colony formation assay. PTGR1 depletion led to G2/M phase cell cycle arrest and increased the proportion of apoptotic cells in 95D cells by flow cytometry. Furthermore, silencing PTGR1 in 95D cells resulted in decreased levels of cyclin-dependent protein kinase complex (CDK1, CDK2, cyclin A2, and cyclin B1) by western blotting and then PTGR1 is positively correlated with cyclin-dependent protein by using the data mining of the Oncomine database. Therefore, our findings suggest that PTGR1 may play a role in lung carcinogenesis through regulating cell proliferation and is a potential new therapeutic strategy for lung cancer.

Immunotherapy Comes of Age in Lung Cancer

Lung carcinoma is the leading cause of death by cancer worldwide. When possible, surgery is the best treatment strategy for patients with non-small-cell lung cancer. However, even with curative-intent therapy, most patients will develop local or systemic recurrence and, ultimately, succumb to their disease. In recent years, evidence on the role of the antitumor activity of the immune system and the understanding of tumor immunosurveillance have resulted in the emergence of immunotherapy as a promising therapeutic approach in lung cancer. The main approaches are immune checkpoint inhibition, such as blockade of the cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 and programmed cell death-1 receptors and the programmed cell death-1 ligand, and vaccine therapy, which elicits specific antitumor immunity against relevant tumor-associated antigens. We have reviewed recently reported results from clinical trials and the possible future role of vaccine therapy and immune checkpoint inhibition in the treatment of small cell lung cancer and non-small-cell lung cancer.

Immunotherapy for Lung Cancer

Immune evasion is recognized as a key strategy for cancer survival and progression. Hence, various approaches to restore antitumor immune responses are currently being investigated. In particular, agents targeting immune checkpoints, such as the cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 receptor and programmed death-1 receptor, have shown potential for improving tumor responses and survival in lung cancer patients. With the first immunomodulating agents having been approved for treatment of selected lung cancer patients, there are high expectations that treatment outcomes may be improved with the incorporation of immunotherapies into the various treatment cascades.

Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer: Role of the Immune System and Potential for Immunotherapy

As the leading cause of cancer death worldwide, lung cancer continues to impose a major burden on healthcare systems and cause significant challenges for clinicians and patients. Most patients present with advanced disease at the time of diagnosis and have a poor prognosis, with the vast majority surviving less than 5 years. Although new therapies have been introduced in recent years that target molecular disease drivers present in a subset of patients, there is a significant need for treatments able to improve response and extend survival while minimizing effects on quality of life. Recent evidence of clinical efficacy for immunotherapeutic approaches for lung cancer suggests that they will become the next major therapeutic advance for this disease. Non-small-cell lung cancer, which accounts for approximately 85% of lung cancer cases, has historically been considered a nonimmunogenic disease; however, as with several other malignancies, recent data show that much of this lack of immune responsiveness is functional rather than structural (i.e., possible to overcome therapeutically). This review explores the key elements of the immune system involved in non-small-cell lung cancer and briefly examines immunotherapeutic strategies in development to shift the balance of immune activity away from a tumor-induced immune-suppressive state toward an active antitumor immune response.

Effect of cytokine-induced killer cells on immune function in patients with lung cancer

Cytokine-induced killer (CIK) cells have been used as adoptive immunotherapy in cancer. The present study evaluated the effect of CIK cells on immune function in patients with lung cancer. Patients were divided into three groups, according to the treatment received prior to CIK cell treatment: CIK group (no prior treatment), Che-Sur group (prior chemotherapy and surgery) and Che-Rad group (prior chemotherapy and radiotherapy). Following treatment, the average percentage of cluster of differentiation (CD)3⁺CD4⁺, CD3⁺, natural killer (NK) and NKT cells in peripheral blood was significantly higher than that prior to CIK treatment in the Che-Sur and CIK groups, and the levels of interferon-γ in serum were significantly higher than those prior to CIK treatment in the Che-Sur and CIK groups. On the contrary, the levels of interleukin-10 had decreased in these groups following CIK treatment. Subsequently, patients were divided into three groups according to the percentage of CD3⁺CD56⁺ CIK cells that were administered to the patients. The number of NK and NKT cells increased with increasing number of CD3⁺CD56⁺ cells. The patients in the CIK and Che-Sur groups were the most benefited ones following CIK treatment, contrarily to those in the Che-Rad group, since the increase in the number of CD3⁺CD56⁺ CIK cells in the aforementioned patients enhanced the number of NK cells, which exhibit antitumor activity.

Why has active immunotherapy not worked in lung cancer?

Vaccines that rely on active specific stimulation of the host immune system have the potential to trigger durable antitumor responses with minimal toxicity. However, in nonsmall-cell lung cancer (NSCLC), several large phase III trials of vaccines reported within the last year have yielded disappointing results. Compared with placebo, belagenpumatucel-L (an allogenic tumor cell vaccine), tecemotide (a peptide vaccine targeting MUC-1) and melanoma-associated antigen-A3 (a protein-based vaccine) did not improve outcomes in NSCLC. The lack of clinically significant outcomes, despite their ability to prime and expand tumor antigen-specific T cells could at least partly be attributed to the inability of vaccine-induced T-cell responses to overcome the tumoral mechanisms of immune escape which limit the clonal expansion of T cells following vaccination. A number of such mechanisms have been recognized including reduced antigen presentation, antigenic loss, cytokines, immunosuppressive cells and immune checkpoints. Strategies aimed at modulating the immune checkpoints have shown promise and are on the verge of revolutionizing the therapeutic landscape of metastatic NSCLC. Overcoming immune tolerance and improving the activation of antitumor T cells via combinatorial approaches may represent a new and more promising therapeutic application for active immunotherapies in NSCLC.

Addressing the unmet need in lung cancer: The potential of immuno-oncology

Chemotherapy is currently the standard of care for non-oncogene-driven advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Due to improvements in chemotherapeutic choices and supportive care, patients currently typically undergo multiple lines of chemotherapy as their disease progresses. Although treatments have improved over recent years, limited benefits are seen, especially in patients receiving later-line chemotherapy, as response rates can be low, response duration short and survival poor. Furthermore, only a small percentage of patients derive benefit from later-line therapy, with most experiencing deteriorating quality of life and significant toxicities. More recently, molecular targeted therapies have provided improvements in outcomes. However, these treatments only offer a clear benefit in subsets of tumours harbouring the appropriate genomic alteration (mutation, amplification, translocation). Most of the genomic abnormalities susceptible to therapeutic intervention are detected in adenocarcinoma, mainly in never smokers, while alterations in the genome of other histological subtypes are known but specific agents targeting these alterations have yet to be developed. Thus, the therapeutic management of these subtypes represents an ongoing challenge. Recent advances in immunotherapy have highlighted the potential of immuno-oncology based treatments for NSCLC, offering the potential to provide durable responses and outcomes regardless of histology or mutation status. This review discusses the current unmet medical needs in NSCLC, the limits of current first-line and later-line chemotherapy and targeted agents, and the emergence of new therapeutic strategies.

Potential biomarkers for lung cancer screening

Notwithstanding the encouraging results of the National Lung Screening Trial (NLST) the scientific community still debates on the cost-benefit profile of low dose computed tomography (LDCT) lung cancer screening. Several major concerns regard how to identify subjects at high risk of developing lung cancer, the optimal diagnostic algorithm, the management of lung nodules and the high false positive rates. The use of complementary biomarkers would be a useful strategy for dealing with most of these issues. This short review will focus on candidates' biomarkers circulating in serum or plasma that already reached an advanced validation phase also in LDCT lung cancer screening series. The biomarkers presented below are examples of the value of searching candidates by looking not only to the tumor itself but also to the interplay between the tumor and the host in order to identify early changes related to the biological reactivity of the host to a developing cancer.

[Immunotherapy in non-small cell lung cancer: inhibition of PD1/PDL1 pathway]

Despite recent advances in targeted therapy of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), many patients do not benefit from these therapies. Inhibition of PD1/PDL1 is an interesting therapeutic target which restores the immune system against tumor cells. PD1 is located on lymphocytes and PDL1 on the antigen presenting cells. PD1 and PDL1 are co-inhibition molecules and their interaction results in immune tolerance against tumor cells. Anti-PD1 and anti-PDL1 antibodies have been developed to restore immune system in solid cancer including NSCLC. In phase I, studies assessing nivolumab, an anti-PD1 antibody, objective responses were observed in 13 to 18% of NSCLC patients failing previous treatment. The data obtained with anti-PDL1 antibodies is similar with objective responses ranging from 6 to 22%. The encouraging results of phase I/II studies must be confirmed in ongoing phase III studies. Anti-PD1 and anti-PDL1 antibodies exposed to new adverse events including auto-immune diseases whose support is not codified. Questions about treatment duration and criteria evaluation are not resolved. These treatments pave the way for immunomodulation in NSCLC treatment.

A peptide antigen derived from EGFR T790M is immunogenic in non‑small cell lung cancer

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Epidermal growth factor receptor-tyrosine kinase inhibitors (EGFR-TKIs), such as gefitinib and erlotinib, have demonstrated marked clinical activity against non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) harboring activating epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations. However, in most cases, patients develop acquired resistance to EGFR-TKI therapy. The threonine to methionine change at codon 790 of EGFR (EGFR T790M) mutation is the most common acquired resistance mutation, and is present in ~50% cases of TKI resistance. New treatment strategies for NSCLC patients harboring the EGFR T790M mutation are required. We evaluated the immunogenicity of an antigen derived from EGFR with the T790M mutation. Using BIMAS we selected several EGFR T790M-derived peptides bound to human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-A^*02:01. T790M-A peptide (789–797) (IMQLMPFGC)-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) were induced from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of HLA-A2⁺ healthy donors. An established T790M-A-specific CTL line showed reactivity against the NCSLC cell line, H1975-A2 (HLA-A2⁺, T790M⁺), but not H1975 (HLA-A2⁻, T790M⁺), and the corresponding wild-type peptide (ITQLMPFGC)-pulsed T2 cells using an interferon-γ (IFN-γ) enzyme-linked immuno spot (ELISPOT) assay. This CTL line also demonstrated peptide-specific cytotoxicity against H1975-A2 cells. This finding suggests that the EGFR T790M mutation-derived antigen could be a new target for cancer immunotherapy.

The development of immunomodulatory monoclonal antibodies as a new therapeutic modality for cancer: the Bristol-Myers Squibb experience

The discovery and increased understanding of the complex interactions regulating the immune system have contributed to the pharmacologic activation of antitumor immunity. The activity of effector cells, such as T and NK cells, is regulated by an array of activating and attenuating receptors and ligands. Agents that target these molecules can modulate immune responses by exerting antagonistic or agonistic effects. Several T- or NK-cell modulators have entered clinical trials, and two have been approved for use. Ipilimumab (Yervoy®, Bristol-Myers Squibb) and nivolumab (OPDIVO, Ono Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd./Bristol-Myers Squibb) were approved for the treatment of metastatic melanoma, in March 2011 in the United States, and in July 2014 in Japan, respectively. The clinical activity of these two antibodies has not been limited to tumor types considered sensitive to immunotherapy, and promising activity has been reported in other solid and hematologic tumors. Clinical development of ipilimumab and nivolumab has presented unique challenges in terms of safety and efficacy, requiring the establishment of new evaluation criteria for adverse events and antitumor effects. Guidelines intended to help oncologists properly manage treatment in view of these non-traditional features have been implemented. The introduction of this new modality of cancer treatment, which is meant to integrate with or replace the current standards of care, requires additional efforts in terms of optimization of treatment administration, identification of biomarkers and application of new clinical trial designs. The availability of immune modulators with different mechanisms of action offers the opportunity to establish immunological combinations as new standards of care.

Adoptive immunotherapy of cytokine-induced killer cell therapy in the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer

AIM

The aim of this study was to systemically evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of cytokine-induced killer (CIK) cells for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A computerized search of randomized controlled trials for CIK cell-based therapy was performed. The overall survival, clinical response rate, immunological assessment and side effects were evaluated.

RESULTS

Overall, 17 randomized controlled trials of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) with a total of 1172 patients were included in the present analysis. Our study showed that the CIK cell therapy significantly improved the objective response rate and overall survival compared to the non-CIK cell-treated group. After CIK combined therapy, we observed substantially increased percentages of CD3+, CD4+, CD4+CD8+, CD3+CD56+ and NK cells, whereas significant decreases were noted in the percentage of CD8+ and regulatory T cell (Treg) subgroups. A significant increase in Ag-NORs was observed in the CIK-treated patient group (p = 0.00001), whereas carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) was more likely to be reduced to a normal level after CIK treatment (p = 0.0008). Of the possible major side effects, only the incidence of fever in the CIK group was significantly higher compared to the group that received chemotherapy alone.

CONCLUSION

The CIK cell combined therapy demonstrated significant superiority in the overall survival, clinical response rate, and T lymphocytes responses and did not present any evidence of major adverse events in patients with NSCLC.

Depletion of C3orf1/TIMMDC1 inhibits migration and proliferation in 95D lung carcinoma cells

In our previous study, we identified an association of high expression of c3orf1, also known as TIMMDC1 (translocase of inner mitochondrial membrane domain-containing protein 1), with metastatic characteristics in lung carcinoma cells. To investigate the preliminary function and mechanism of this mitochondrial protein, we depleted C3orf1 expression by introducing siRNA into 95D lung carcinoma cells. We demonstrated that C3orf1 depletion significantly suppressed 95D cell growth and migration. We confirmed C3orf1 localization in the inner mitochondrial membrane and showed that mitochondrial viability, membrane potential, and ATPase activity were remarkably reduced upon depletion of C3orf1. Microarray data indicated that genes involved in regulation of cell death, migration, and cell-cycle arrest were significantly altered after C3orf1 depletion for 48 h. The expression of genes involved in focal adhesion, ECM-receptor interaction, and p53-signaling pathways were notably altered. Furthermore, cell-cycle arrest genes such as CCNG2 and PTEN as well as genes involved in cell migration inhibition, such as TIMP3 and COL3A1, were upregulated after C3orf1 depletion in 95D cells. Concurrently, expression of the migration-promoting gene NUPR1 was markedly reduced, as confirmed by real-time PCR. We conclude that C3orf1 is critical for mitochondrial function, migration, and proliferation in 95D lung carcinoma cells. Depletion of C3orf1 inhibited cell migration and cell proliferation in association with upregulation of genes involved in cell-cycle arrest and cell migration inhibition. These results suggest that C3orf1 (TIMMDC1) may be a viable treatment target for lung carcinoma, and that further study of the role of this protein in lung carcinoma pathogenesis is justified.

Gefitinib plus interleukin-2 in advanced non-small cell lung cancer patients previously treated with chemotherapy

The activation of lymphocytes by gefitinib treatment has been described. In this phase II pilot trial, we explored the possible synergism between IL-2 and gefitinib for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) treatment. From September, 2003, to November, 2006, 70 consecutive patients with advanced, progressive NSCLC, previously treated with chemotherapy, received oral gefitinib 250 mg daily. The first 39 patients received gefitinib alone (G group). The other 31 also received subcutaneous IL-2 (GIL-2 group): 1 MIU/m² (Million International Unit/m²)twice a day on Days 1 and 2, once a day on Days 3, 4, 5 every week for four consecutive weeks with a four-week rest period. Median follow-up was 25.2 months. Grade 3–4 toxicity of gefitinib was represented by skin rash (7%), asthenia/anorexia (6%) and diarrhea (7%); patients treated with IL-2 showed grade 2–3 fever (46%), fatigue (21%) and arthralgia (13%). In the GIL-2 group and G-group, we respectively observed: an overall response rate of 16.1% (6.4% complete response) and 5.1% (only partial response); a disease control rate of 41.9% and 41%; a median time to progression of 3.5 (CI 95% = 3.2–3.8) and 4.1 (CI 95% = 2.6–5.7) months; a median overall survival of 20.1 (CI 95% = 5.1–35.1) and 6.9 (CI 95% = 4.9–8.9) months (p = 0.002); and an actuarial one-year survival rate of 54% and 30%. Skin toxicity (p < 0.001; HR = 0.29; CI 95% = 0.16–0.54) and use of IL-2 (p < 0.001; HR = 0.33; CI 95% = 0.18–0.60) were independently associated with improvement of survival. In this consecutive, non-randomized, series of advanced NSCLC patients, the use of IL-2 increased the efficacy of gefitinib.

The management of brain metastases in non-small cell lung cancer

Brain metastases (BM) are a common and lethal complication of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), which portend a poor prognosis. In addition, their management implies several challenges including preservation of neurological and neurocognitive function during surgery or radiation-therapy, minimizing iatrogenic complications of supportive medications, and optimizing drug delivery across the blood–brain barrier. Despite these challenges, advancements in combined modality approaches can deliver hope of improved overall survival and quality of life for a subset of NSCLC patients with BM. Moreover, new drugs harnessing our greater understanding of tumor biology promise to build on this hope. In this mini-review, we revised the management of BM in NSCLC including advancements in neurosurgery, radiation therapy, as well as systemic and supportive therapy.

The interplay between radiation and the immune system in the field of post-radical pneumonitis and fibrosis and why it is important to understand it

A discussion on the importance and pathogenesis of radiation-induced pneumonitis and fibrosis is provided, with a special focus on the role of the immune system. The need to understand this interaction is highlighted in view of emerging therapeutic potential.

[Advances of immunotherapy in small cell lung cancer]

小细胞肺癌（small cell lung cancer, SCLC）具有复杂的异质性，由于细胞起源、发病机制和驱动基因尚不明确，SCLC的诊治进展缓慢，鲜有突破，迫切需要新的治疗策略提高SCLC疗效。肿瘤免疫治疗可提高免疫系统识别和排除肿瘤细胞的能力，且对正常组织影响轻微。目前已经开展了肿瘤疫苗、过继细胞免疫治疗、细胞因子、checkpoint抑制剂等治疗SCLC的临床研究，ipilimumab是最有前景的药物。免疫治疗有望为SCLC治疗带来新的希望，未来还需要对SCLC的异质性、免疫治疗靶点不明确、免疫治疗耐受等影响免疫治疗疗效的问题开展进一步研究。

Actual status of therapeutic vaccination in non-small cell lung cancer

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Although treatment methods such as surgery, radiotherapy and/or chemotherapy have improved, prognosis remains unsatisfactory, and developing new therapeutic strategies is still an urgent matter. Immunotherapy is a novel therapeutic approach wherein activated immune cells can specifically kill tumour cells. Several lung cancer vaccines have demonstrated prolonged survival time in phase II and III trials, and several clinical trials are under investigation. However, many clinical trials involving cancer vaccination with defined tumour antigens have shown this method to work only in a small number of patients. Cancer immunotherapy is not completely effective in eradicating tumour cells because they evade host immune control.

Moderating effects and maintenance of lung cancer cellular immune functions by CIK cell therapy

AIMS

To study the CIK cell treatment effects on regulation of cellular immune function disorders in patients with lung cancer, and to analyze the time characteristics.

METHODS

Cellular immune function was assessed by FCM, and patients with functional disorders were randomly divided into two groups, one given CIK cell therapy within 18 months (5 courses) and the other the controls, which were followed up for 1 year with cellular immune functions tested once a month.

RESULTS

There were 5 types of cellular immunity, 4 of which are disorders; after CIK treatment, the improvement rate of the 4 groups were 79.1%, 70.8%, 76.0% and 70.0%, intergroup differences not being statistically significant (P=0.675), all significantly higher than in the control group (P=0.000). The median maintenance times for the 4 groups were 10.4 months (9.76-11.04), 8.4 months (7.86-8.94), 9.8 months (9.20-10.4) and 7.9 months (6.25-9.55), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

CIK cells were able to improve the immune functions of patients with lung cancer, the rate of improvement and maintenance time being related to the immune function before the treatment and CIK-cell-therapy courses.

Challenges and opportunities for cancer vaccines in the current NSCLC clinical scenario

This review is aimed to focus on NSCLC as an emerging and promising model for active immunotherapy and the challenges for its inclusion in the current clinical scenario. Cancer vaccines for NSCLC have been focused as a therapeutic option based on the identification of a tumor hallmark and the active immunization with the related molecules that triggers cellular and/or humoral responses that consequently destroy or delay the rate of malignant progression. This therapeutic intervention in an established disease state has been aimed to impact into prolonging patient´s survival with ethically accepted quality of life. Understanding of relationship between structure and function in cancer vaccines is essential to interpret their opportunities to impact into prolonging survival and increasing quality of life in cancer patients. It is widely accepted that the failure of the cancer vaccines in the NSCLC scenario is related with its introduction in the advanced disease stages and poor performance status of the patients due to the combination of the tumor induced immunosuppression with the immune senescence. Despite first, second and emerging third line of onco-specific treatments the life expectancy for NSCLC patients diagnosed at advanced stages is surrounding the 12 months of median survival and in facts the today real circumstances are extremely demanding for the success inclusion of cancer vaccines as therapeutic choice in the clinical scenario. The kinetics of the active immunizations encompasses a sequential cascade of clinical endpoints: starting by the activation of the immune system, followed by the antitumor response and finalizing with the consequential impact on patients’ overall survival. Today this cascade of clinical endpoints is the backbone for active immunization assessment and moreover the concept of cancer vaccines, applied in the NSCLC setting, is just evolving as a complex therapeutic strategy, in which the opportunities for cancer vaccines start from the selection of the target cancer hallmark, followed by the vaccine formulation and its platforms for immune potentiating, also cover the successful insertion in the standard of care, the chronic administration beyond progression disease, the personalization based on predictors of response and the potential combination with other targeted therapies.

Increased CD14(+)HLA-DR (-/low) myeloid-derived suppressor cells correlate with extrathoracic metastasis and poor response to chemotherapy in non-small cell lung cancer patients

Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), a heterogeneous population of cells, play an important role in the subversion, inhibition, and downregulation of the immune response to cancer. However, the characteristics of these cells, particularly clinical relevance, in malignant tumors remain unclear due to a lack of specific markers. In this study, we characterized peripheral CD14(+)HLA-DR(-/low) cells, a new human MDSC subpopulation, in 89 patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). As expected, both frequency and absolute number of CD14(+)HLA-DR(-/low) cells were significantly increased in the peripheral blood of NSCLC patients compared with that of the healthy controls and indicated an association with metastasis, response to chemotherapy, and progression-free survival. These cells showed decreased expression of CD16 and CD86 compared with HLA-DR(+) monocytes. Unlike classical monocytes, these populations showed significantly decreased allostimulatory activity and showed the ability to inhibit autologous T cell proliferation and IFN-γ production in a cell-contact-dependent manner. Furthermore, we demonstrated that CD14(+)HLA-DR(-/low) cells expressed the NADPH oxidase component gp91(phox) and generated high level of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Moreover, inactivation of ROS reversed their immunosuppressive capacity on T cell response. These results prove, for the first time, the existence of ROS-producing CD14(+)HLA-DR(-/low) myeloid-derived suppressor cells in NSCLC patients, which mediate tumor immunosuppression and might thus represent a potential target for therapeutic intervention.

Perspectives on immunotherapy in prostate cancer and solid tumors: where is the future?

The goals of any cancer therapy are to improve disease control, palliate pain and improve overall survival. We are fortunate to have in our cancer armamentarium two new immune-directed therapies which not only impact on disease control but also on overall survival. The first, sipuleucel-T, a cellular-based vaccine, was approved for prostate cancer and was shown to be safe with minimal toxicity. The second, ipilimumab, a monoclonal antibody directed to an immunologic checkpoint molecule, showed a survival benefit in patients with advanced melanoma. Benefit appeared to correlate in some cases with the development of autoimmune events, signaling that the immune system is in overdrive against the cancer. Where we are and where we will likely go are the topics to be discussed in this review.

Investigation of complement activation product c4d as a diagnostic and prognostic biomarker for lung cancer

BACKGROUND

There is a medical need for diagnostic biomarkers in lung cancer. We evaluated the diagnostic performance of complement activation fragments.

METHODS

We assessed complement activation in four bronchial epithelial and seven lung cancer cell lines. C4d, a degradation product of complement activation, was determined in 90 primary lung tumors; bronchoalveolar lavage supernatants from patients with lung cancer (n = 50) and nonmalignant respiratory diseases (n = 22); and plasma samples from advanced (n = 50) and early lung cancer patients (n = 84) subjects with inflammatory lung diseases (n = 133), and asymptomatic individuals enrolled in a lung cancer computed tomography screening program (n = 190). Two-sided P values were calculated by Mann-Whitney U test.

RESULTS

Lung cancer cells activated the classical complement pathway mediated by C1q binding that was inhibited by phosphomonoesters. Survival was decreased in patients with high C4d deposition in tumors (hazard ratio [HR] = 3.06; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.18 to 7.91). C4d levels were increased in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from lung cancer patients compared with patients with nonmalignant respiratory diseases (0.61 ± 0.87 vs 0.16 ± 0.11 µg/mL; P < .001). C4d levels in plasma samples from lung cancer patients at both advanced and early stages were also increased compared with control subjects (4.13 ± 2.02 vs 1.86 ± 0.95 µg/mL, P < 0.001; 3.18 ± 3.20 vs 1.13 ± 0.69 µg/mL, P < .001, respectively). C4d plasma levels were associated with shorter survival in patients at advanced (HR = 1.59; 95% CI = 0.97 to 2.60) and early stages (HR = 5.57; 95% CI = 1.60 to 19.39). Plasma C4d levels were reduced after surgical removal of lung tumors (P < .001) and were associated with increased lung cancer risk in asymptomatic individuals with (n = 32) or without lung cancer (n = 158) (odds ratio = 4.38; 95% CI = 1.61 to 11.93).

CONCLUSIONS

Complement fragment C4d may serve as a biomarker for early diagnosis and prognosis of lung cancer.

Gene Expression Profile of the A549 Human Non-Small Cell Lung Carcinoma Cell Line following Treatment with the Seeds of Descurainia sophia, a Potential Anticancer Drug

Descurainia sophia has been traditionally used in Korean medicine for treatment of diverse diseases and their symptoms, such as cough, asthma, and edema. Our previous results showed that ethanol extract of the seeds of D. sophia (EEDS) has a potent cytotoxic effect on human cancer cells. In this study, we reveal the molecular events that are induced by EEDS treatment in A549 human lung cancer cells. The dose-dependent effect of EEDS on gene expression was measured via a microarray analysis. Gene ontology and pathway analyses were performed to identify functional involvement of genes regulated by EEDS. From gene expression analyses, two major dose-dependent patterns were observed after EEDS treatment. One pattern consisted of 1,680 downregulated genes primarily involved in metabolic processes (FDR < 0.01). The second pattern consisted of 1,673 upregulated genes primarily involved in signaling processes (FDR < 0.01). Pathway activity analyses revealed that the metabolism-related pathways and signaling-related pathways were regulated by the EEDS in dose-dependent and reciprocal manners. In conclusion, the identified biphasic regulatory mechanism involving activation of signaling pathways may provide molecular evidence to explain the inhibitory effect of EEDS on A549 cell growth.

Exposure-response relationships of the efficacy and safety of ipilimumab in patients with advanced melanoma

PURPOSE

This retrospective analysis was conducted to characterize ipilimumab exposure-response relationships for measures of efficacy and safety in patients with advanced melanoma.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Data were pooled from 498 patients who received ipilimumab monotherapy at 0.3, 3, or 10 mg/kg in 1 of 4 completed phase II clinical trials. The relationships between steady-state ipilimumab trough concentration (Cminss), complete or partial tumor response (CR or PR), and safety [immune-related adverse events (irAEs)] were described by logistic regression models. The relationship between exposure and overall survival was characterized using a Cox proportional-hazards model.

RESULTS

The steady-state trough concentration of ipilimumab was found to be a significant predictor of a CR or PR (P < 0.001). Model-based estimates indicate that the probabilities of a CR or PR at median Cminss for the 0.3, 3, and 10 mg/kg groups were 0.6%, 4.9%, and 11.6%, respectively. Overall survival at the median Cminss for ipilimumab at 0.3 mg/kg was estimated to be 0.85- and 0.58-fold lower relative to that at the median Cminss for 3 and 10 mg/kg, respectively. Model-based estimates indicate that the probabilities of a grade 3 or more irAE at the median Cminss for the 0.3, 3, and 10 mg/kg doses were 3%, 13%, and 24%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher doses of ipilimumab produce greater Cminss that may be associated with increased tumor responses, longer survival, and higher rates of irAEs. The efficacy and safety of ipilimumab at 3 versus 10 mg/kg in patients with advanced melanoma is being evaluated in an ongoing phase III trial.

CpG-ODN 7909 increases radiation sensitivity of radiation-resistant human lung adenocarcinoma cell line by overexpression of Toll-like receptor 9

Radioresistance is one of the main reasons for the failure of radiotherapy in lung cancer. The aim of this study was to establish a radiation-resistant lung cancer cell line, to evaluate whether CpG oligodeoxyribonucleotide (CpG-ODN) 7909 could increase its radiosensitivity and to explore the relevant mechanisms. The radioresistant cell line, referred to as R-A549, was generated by reduplicative fractionated irradiation from the human lung adenocarcinoma cell line A549. The radioresistance of R-A549 cells were confirmed by the Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8), cell viability assay, and clonogenic assay. Cell growth kinetics, morphological feature, and radiosensitivity were compared between the original A549 cells and R-A549 cells treated with or without CpG-ODN 7909 or radiation. To further explore the potential mechanisms of radiosensitivity, the cell cycle distributions and the expression of Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR-9) were examined by Western blot and flow cytometry. The R-A549 cell line was generated and its radioresistance was further confirmed. CpG-ODN 7909 was found to increase much more radiosensitivity of R-A549 cells under combined treatments with CpG-ODN 7909 and radiation compared with its control group without any treatments. They presented their respective D0 1.33 ± 0.20 Gy versus 1.76 ± 0.25 Gy with N 3.44 ± 1.01 versus 4.96 ± 0.32. Further, there was a larger cell population of R-A549 cells under combined treatment in the G2/M phase compared with the control group after treatment with CpG-ODN7909 or radiation alone at 24 and 48 hour. The expression level of TLR-9 in R-A549 cells was found higher than in A549 cells. These results suggested that CpG-ODN 7909 increased the radiosensitivity of R-A549 cells, which might be mediated via the upregulated TLR-9 and prolonged cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase compared with A549 cells.

Current clinical immunotherapy targets in advanced nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC)

NSCLC remains one of the most challenging malignancies to treat. Despite the introduction of innovative therapies over the last decade, the 5-year survival of NSCLC is still <20%. Clearly, novel, therapeutic approaches are required. Targeting the immune system to derive meaningful clinical benefit has proved successful in various malignancies in recent years. As a result, there is renewed focus on the use of immunotherapy in lung cancer. In this review, we provide an overview of current immune-modulatory approaches in the treatment of NSCLC.