Geographic and racial patterns of anemia prevalence among low-income Alaskan children and pregnant or postpartum women limit potential etiologies

Prospective payment system and racial/ethnic disparities: a national retrospective observational study in anaemia complication among end-stage renal disease patients in the US

Background

A series of policy changes in 2011 altered reimbursement arrangements and guidance on use of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents for end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients with anaemia in the US. While the policy changes were principally directed at care delivered in an outpatient setting, these had the potential to affect inpatient care also. This study used HCUP-NIS data (2008–2016) to examine trends in recorded anaemia among ESRD hospitalizations and analyse disparities in inpatient outcomes among ethnic groups following policy changes.

Methods

The International Classification of Diseases codes were used to identify ESRD admissions, recorded anaemia due to chronic kidney disease (CKD), and to generate an age-adjusted Deyo-Charlson comorbidity index. Linear splines with a knot placed at the time point of policy changes and multivariable logistic regression were used to examine the likelihood of recorded anaemia, adjusted for a range of socio-demographic and clinical covariates. Difference-in-difference analyses investigated the impact of policies on recorded anaemia. Other outcomes included hospital cost, mortality and place of discharge.

Results

The percentage of inpatient episodes with recorded anaemia arising from CKD increased from 26.2% in 2008 to 50.0% in 2016. Anaemia was more likely to be recorded as a complication of ESRD among minority ethnic groups and Native American admissions, in particular, (OR 1.20, 95%CI 1.15–1.25) relative to White American admissions; and these disparities widened following changes to reimbursement. Minorities were less likely to die in hospital and to be discharged to another healthcare facility, and (with the exception of Black American admissions) they were more expensive to treat.

Conclusions

Our findings provide evidence of an increase in recorded anaemia consistent with a shift of patients from outpatient to inpatient settings in the wake of changes to reimbursement enacted in 2011. In addition, the study highlights the existence of ethnic disparities that widened after the policy initiated reimbursement changes.

Anemia in disadvantaged children aged under five years; quality of care in primary practice

BACKGROUND

Anemia rates are over 60% in disadvantaged children yet there is little information about the quality of anemia care for disadvantaged children.

METHODS

Our primary objective was to assess the burden and quality of anemia care for disadvantaged children and to determine how this varied by age and geographic location. We implemented a cross-sectional study using clinical audit data from 2287 Indigenous children aged 6-59 months attending 109 primary health care centers between 2012 and 2014. Data were analysed using multivariable regression models.

RESULTS

Children aged 6-11 months (164, 41.9%) were less likely to receive anemia care than children aged 12-59 months (963, 56.5%) (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 0.48, CI 0.35, 0.65). Proportion of children receiving anemia care ranged from 10.2% (92) (advice about 'food security') to 72.8% (728) (nutrition advice). 70.2% of children had a hemoglobin measurement in the last 12 months. Non-remote area families (115, 38.2) were less likely to receive anemia care compared to remote families (1012, 56.4%) (aOR 0.34, CI 0.15, 0.74). 57% (111) aged 6-11 months were diagnosed with anemia compared to 42.8% (163) aged 12-23 months and 22.4% (201) aged 24-59 months. 49% (48.5%, 219) of children with anemia received follow up.

CONCLUSIONS

The burden of anemia and quality of care for disadvantaged Indigenous children was concerning across all remote and urban locations assessed in this study. Improved services are needed for children aged 6-11 months, who are particularly at risk.

Prevalence of unexplained anaemia in Inuit men and Inuit post-menopausal women in Northern Labrador: International Polar Year Inuit Health Survey

OBJECTIVE

To identify correlates of hemoglobin (Hb) and anaemia unexplained by iron deficiency (UA) in Canadian Inuit adults.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey assessed diet, demographic information, anthropometry, fasting Hb, ferritin, soluble transferrin receptor (on a subset), high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) in serum, red blood cell (RBC) fatty acid composition, blood lead, and antibodies to Helicobacter pylori in non-pregnant, Inuit adults (n = 2550), ≥18 years of age from randomly selected households in 36 Inuit communities in Inuvialuit Settlement Region, Nunavut Territory and Nunatsiavut of Northern Labrador, Canada.

RESULTS

Hb concentrations were lower and UA prevalence higher in Inuit men after 50 years of age. Rate of anaemia was constant among Inuit women but changed from primarily iron deficiency anaemia pre-menopause, to primarily UA in post-menopause. Low education levels and hs-CRP were associated with increased risk of UA. For Inuit men, % RBC eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and elevated blood lead were also associated with increased risk of UA. Frequency of traditional food intake was positively associated with Hb.

CONCLUSION

Age patterns and regional variation of anaemia suggest that ethnicity-related physiological differences cannot explain anaemia prevalence for Inuit. High RBC EPA status, inflammation and infections, and lower education levels may contribute to the prevalence of anaemia in this population, which is not related to iron status. Thus, traditional lifestyle may protect Inuit from nutritional anaemia but contribute to lower Hb through environmental exposures. The clinical significance of UA for older Inuit adults requires further investigation, as the prevalence represents a moderate public health problem.

Burden of anemia among indigenous populations

An international perspective of the magnitude of anemia in indigenous peoples is currently lacking. The present systematic review was performed to characterize the global prevalence, severity, and etiology of anemia in indigenous peoples by conducting a systematic search of original research published in English from 1996 to February 2010 using PubMed, Medline, and Embase. A total of 50 studies, representing the following 13 countries, met the inclusion criteria: Australia, Brazil, Canada, Guatemala, India, Kenya, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, the United States, and Venezuela. Results indicate major deficiencies in the coverage and quality of anemia monitoring data for indigenous populations worldwide. The burden of anemia is overwhelmingly higher among indigenous groups compared to the general population and represents a moderate (20-39.9%) to severe (≥40%) public health problem. For the most part, the etiology of anemia is preventable and includes inadequate diet, poor living conditions, and high infection rates (i.e., malaria and intestinal parasites). A concerted global effort is needed to reduce the worldwide burden of anemia in these marginalized populations.

Prevalência da anemia e fatores associados em crianças de seis a 59 meses de Pernambuco

OBJETIVO: Estimar a prevalência de anemia e identificar seus fatores associados em crianças de seis a 59 meses. MÉTODOS: Estudo transversal com dados da III Pesquisa Estadual de Saúde e Nutrição/Pernambuco em amostra representativa de 1.403 crianças para as áreas urbana e rural. A anemia foi diagnosticada pela dosagem da hemoglobina. A análise multivariada foi realizada a partir de um modelo hierárquico, utilizando a regressão de Poisson, com variância robusta para estimar a razão de prevalência em função de variáveis: biológicas, de morbidade e estado nutricional da criança, socioeconômicas, de habitação, de saneamento e fatores maternos. RESULTADOS: A prevalência ponderada de anemia foi de 32,8%: 31,5% na área urbana e 36,6% na rural. Na área urbana, as variáveis que se associaram significantemente à anemia foram: escolaridade materna, bens de consumo, número de crianças menores de cinco anos no domicílio, tratamento da água de beber, idade e anemia materna e idade da criança. Na área rural, apenas a idade materna e a idade da criança associaram-se de modo significante à anemia. CONCLUSÕES: A prevalência de anemia nas crianças pernambucanas é semelhante nas áreas urbana e rural. Os fatores associados à anemia apresentados devem ser considerados no planejamento de medidas efetivas para o seu controle.

Low prevalence of iron-deficiency anaemia among Inuit preschool children: Nunavut Inuit Child Health Survey, 2007–2008

Objective

To report the prevalence rates and correlates for anaemia, iron deficiency (ID) and iron-deficiency anaemia (IDA) among Inuit preschool-aged children.

Design

A cross-sectional study assessed iron intake, demographic information, medical history, anthropometrics, Hb, ferritin, C-reactive protein and antibodies toHelicobacter pylori.

Setting

Sixteen selected Inuit communities in Nunavut Territory, Canada.

Subjects

Inuit (n388) aged 3–5 years randomly recruited from communities.

Results

Anaemia (3–4 years: Hb < 110 g/l; 5 years: Hb < 115 g/l) was prevalent in 16·8 % of children. The prevalence of ID (ferritin < 12 μg/l) was 18·0 % and that of IDA was 5·4 %. When ID was defined as ferritin <10 μg/l, 10·8 % of children were iron deficient and 3·3 % had IDA. In multiple logistic regression, boys were more likely to be iron deficient (OR = 2·28, 95 % CI 1·17, 8·25), but no other risk factor emerged for ID. Three- to 4-year-olds were less likely than 5-year-olds to have anaemia from causes other than ID (OR = 0·11, 95 % CI 0·08, 0·58). Anaemia from other causes was more common among children residing in crowded homes (OR = 2·30, 95 % CI 1·37, 12·31) and those treated for past-year ear infection (OR = 1·35, 95 % CI 1·05, 7·21).

Conclusions

The low prevalence of ID and IDA is encouraging, but efforts are still needed to reduce rates as they continue to be higher than general population rates. Household crowding and infections may contribute to anaemia and warrant further research.

Early childhood hemoglobin level is a strong predictor of hemoglobin levels during later childhood among low-income Alaska children

OBJECTIVES

For unknown reasons, Arctic Indigenous children have iron deficiency and anemia prevalences up to 10 times higher than national reference populations. The current study sought to identify the importance of Alaska Native status, residence and hemoglobin (Hb) level at age 10 to 23 months for predicting Hb levels at age 24 to 59 months when controlling for potential confounders.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective cohort.

METHODS

A birth certificate database was linked to a database containing hemoglobin levels determined through the U.S. Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC) among Alaskan children age 10 to 59 months evaluated from 1999-2006.

RESULTS

Of children with a birth certificate matched to WIC data, Alaska Native status and residence in western and northern Alaska were associated strongly with anemia at both ages. Nevertheless, of 5,796 children with Hb levels determined at both ages, the single strongest predictor of Hb level at age 24 to 59 months was Hb level at age 10 to 23 months. The community-level anemia prevalence among children age 10 to 23 months was predictive of community-level anemia prevalence among children age 24 to 59 months.

CONCLUSIONS

The early onset of anemia and the strong association between earlier and later Hb levels or anemia at both the individual and community levels suggest a role for prenatal effects that remain until at least age 5 years. This is true particularly of Yupik and Inupiat children, who make up the primary residents of western and northern Alaska.