Enteral Nutrition Practices in Critically Ill Children Requiring Noninvasive Positive Pressure Ventilation

Enteral feeding in pediatric patients with bronchiolitis requiring non-invasive support via nasal interface

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

The benefits of enteral feeding in critically ill children have been well described, but the use of non-invasive respiratory support has been shown to delay initiation of feeds, in part due to safety concerns. We aimed to examine the association of enteral feeding by mouth and orogastric tube on clinically significant adverse events in children with bronchiolitis being treated with non-invasive respiratory support via nasal interfaces.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study of patients 0-24 months of age between 2016 and 2022 in a quaternary care hospital pediatric intensive care unit with a diagnosis of bronchiolitis and treatment with non-invasive respiratory support via nasal interface. Standard comparative statistics and multivariable regression were used to determine the association between oral and nasogastric feeding and clinically significant outcomes such as new diagnosis of pneumonia and escalation in respiratory support, as well lengths of stay.

RESULTS

There were 407 patients 24 months or younger who were admitted with bronchiolitis and treated with non-invasive respiratory support. There was a 4.65 increased odds of developing a new pneumonia for patients who were fed nasogastrically versus orally. There were no differences in the development of pneumonia based on type of respiratory support, whether an escalation in respiratory support was needed, or based on the highest level of support received. Both pediatric intensive care unit and overall hospital lengths of stay were decreased in those who were orally fed.

CONCLUSIONS

Enteral feeding in children with bronchiolitis receiving non-invasive respiratory support appears to be safe and not associated with escalation in support or new diagnoses of pneumonia. Oral feeds were associated with decreased lengths of stay. Further work is needed to assess long term safety and ability to achieve adequate nutritional requirements.

IMPACT

Enteral feeding of children with bronchiolitis requiring non-invasive respiratory support via nasal interfaces did not have an effect on clinically significant adverse events Feeding by mouth led to decreased risk of pneumonia and shorter inpatient length of stay Future work is needed to study the ability to achieve nutrition goals when feeding by mouth on non-invasive support.

Feeding Infants on Noninvasive Respiratory Support: Practice at One Academic Medical Center

PURPOSE

Infants requiring noninvasive respiratory support (NRS) are often orally fed, although data supporting the safety and efficacy of this practice are limited. This study aimed to identify the rate of this practice, the amount of support received during oral feeding, and characteristics of infants orally fed during NRS use; describe feeding expert involvement; and assess change from before and after the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic.

METHOD

Retrospective electronic health record data from one children's hospital were extracted and manually reviewed.

RESULTS

Results for 201 infants who required NRS during hospitalization in 2019 (n = 100) and 2022 (n = 101) were included, of which 91 (45.3%) were orally fed during NRS use. Of these, 33 were fed on high-flow nasal cannula (HFNC) with a mean flow rate of 2.75 L per minute (SD = 2.2, Mdn = 2 [min-max: 2-14]) and mean fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) of 0.47 (SD = 0.31, Mdn = 0.30 [min-max: 0.21-1.0]). Thirty-seven feeding specialist consults were placed for infants fed during NRS use. Factors increasing odds of oral feeding during NRS use included not having a dysphagia or feeding difficulty diagnosis. Infants admitted during 2022 were more likely to have a respiratory diagnosis than in 2019 and were more likely to be orally fed during HFNC (50.0% [n = 25/50] in 2022 vs. 20.5% [n = 8/39] in 2019).

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that feeding infants on NRS is common, that some infants are more likely to be orally fed than others, and that feeding experts are rarely consulted in this population despite limited safety and efficacy data related to this practice.

Oral Nutrition During Continuous Albuterol for Pediatric Critical Asthma: A Matched Cohort Study

Purpose

The practice of withholding oral nutrition for children hospitalized for critical asthma receiving continuous albuterol is not evidence based. We sought to characterize oral nutrition practices in this population and estimate the frequency of aspiration-related respiratory failure.

Methods

We performed a single-center retrospective, matched cohort study of children 3-17 years of age admitted to a pediatric intensive care unit from Oct 2020 to May 2023 for critical asthma receiving continuous albuterol. Cases provided oral nutrition were matched 1:2 to controls withheld nutrition by age and National Heart Lung and Blood Institute asthma severity classification. The primary outcome was aspiration-related respiratory failure defined as any respiratory support escalation following observed aspiration. Descriptive data included demographics, anthropometrics, pediatric asthma severity scores, adjunct asthma interventions, continuous albuterol duration, mortality, and length of stay.

Results

Of 36 cases and 72 matched controls, the mean age was 9.1±3.9 years and 66.7% had moderate-severe persistent asthma. Cases and controls had comparable anthropometrics and admission pediatric asthma severity scores. No aspiration-related respiratory failure events were observed even among those receiving nutrition concurrent to noninvasive ventilation. Compared to controls, cases experienced a longer continuous albuterol duration (median: 1.1 [interquartile range: 0.7-1.8] versus 0.7 [interquartile range: 0.3-1.3] days, p<0.001). No differences in length of stay, adjunct interventions, endotracheal intubation rates, and mortality were observed between cases and controls.

Conclusion

For children hospitalized for critical asthma, oral nutrition during continuous nebulized albuterol appeared well tolerated. While prospective validation is required, the practice of withholding oral nutrition for continuous albuterol administration may be unwarranted.

Enteral feeding strategies in patients with acute gastrointestinal injury: From limited to progressive to open feeding

Acute gastrointestinal injury (AGI) is very common in critically ill patients, and its severity is positively correlated with mortality. Critically ill patients with digestive and absorption dysfunction caused by AGI face higher nutritional risks, making nutritional support particularly important. Early enteral nutrition (EN) support is extremely important because it can promote the recovery of intestinal function, protect the intestinal mucosal barrier, reduce microbiota translocation, reduce postoperative complications, shorten hospital stay, and improve clinical prognosis. In recent years, many nutritional guidelines have been proposed for critically ill patients; however, there are few recommendations for the implementation of EN in patients with AGI, and their quality of evidence is low. The use of EN feeding strategies in critically ill patients with AGI remains controversial. The aim of this review was to elaborate on how EN feeding strategies should transition from limited to progressive to open feeding and explain the time window for this transition.

Association between goal nutrition and intubation in patients with bronchiolitis on noninvasive ventilation: A retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Acute bronchiolitis causes many hospitalizations in children younger than 2 years. Early enteral nutrition is associated with improved outcomes in these patients. However, often nutrition is withheld when patients require noninvasive respiratory support because of the risk of aspiration worsening respiratory failure, possibly requiring intubation. We hypothesize that achieving goal energy intake is associated with a lower intubation rate in hospitalized children with bronchiolitis who require noninvasive ventilation.

METHODS

This retrospective cohort study examined the association between goal enteral nutrition (60% of dietary reference energy intake) and intubation rates. We grouped patients by severity of illness and compared intubation rates in those who met goal energy to those who did not. We use stratified analysis methods (for both level of respiratory support and feeding route) to evaluate progression to intubation.

RESULTS

Of the 272 patients, 215 met goal feeds. These groups had similar demographics, but the goal-feeds group started on higher respiratory support in the pediatric intensive care unit. We found that 4.65% of the patients who met goal feeds required intubation compared with 24.6% of patients who did not meet goal feeds (P < 0.0001), even after controlling for respiratory status at admission and time of feed initiation and feeding route.

CONCLUSION

We observed when adjusting for severity, feeding route, and respiratory support, achieving goal energy intake remained associated with a lower rate of intubation, without higher rates of aspiration. Confounding factors include practice variation and difference in severity of illness that objective scoring may have missed.

A Retrospective Study of Complications of Enteral Feeding in Critically Ill Children on Noninvasive Ventilation

The utilization of noninvasive ventilation (NIV) in pediatric intensive care units (PICUs), to support children with respiratory failure and avoid endotracheal intubation, has increased. Current guidelines recommend initiating enteral nutrition (EN) within the first 24-48 h post admission. This practice remains variable among PICUs due to perceptions of a lack of safety data and the potential increase in respiratory and gastric complications. The objective of this retrospective study was to evaluate the association between EN and development of extraintestinal complications in children 0-18 years of age on NIV for acute respiratory failure. Of 332 patients supported with NIV, 249 (75%) were enterally fed within the first 48 h of admission. Respiratory complications occurred in 132 (40%) of the total cohort and predominantly in non-enterally fed patients (60/83, 72% vs. 72/249, 29%; p < 0.01), and they occurred earlier during ICU admission (0 vs. 2 days; p < 0.01). The majority of complications were changes in the fraction of inspired oxygen (220/290, 76%). In the multivariate evaluation, children on bilevel positive airway pressure (BiPAP) (23/132, 17% vs. 96/200, 48%; odds ratio [OR] = 5.3; p < 0.01), receiving a higher fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO₂) (0.42 vs. 0.35; OR = 6; p = 0.03), and with lower oxygen saturation (SpO₂) (91% vs. 97%; OR = 0.8; p < 0.01) were more likely to develop a complication. Time to discharge from the intensive care unit (ICU) was longer for patients with complications (11 vs. 3 days; OR = 1.12; p < 0.01). The large majority of patients requiring NIV can be enterally fed without an increase in respiratory complications after an initial period of ICU stabilization.

Parameters for Orally Feeding Neonates Who Require Noninvasive Ventilation: A Systematic Review

PURPOSE

Infants hospitalized in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) may be orally fed while receiving noninvasive ventilation (NIV), but the practice is variable and decision criteria are not well understood. This systematic review examines the evidence regarding this practice, including type and level of NIV used during NICU oral feeding, protocols, and safety of this practice.

METHOD

The PubMed, Scopus, and Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) databases were searched to identify publications relevant to this review. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were followed to ensure the appropriate inclusion of articles.

RESULTS

Fourteen articles were included. Seven studies (50%) were retrospective. Two were quality improvement projects, and the remaining five (35.7%) were prospective. Continuous positive airway pressure and high-flow nasal cannula were commonly used. Levels of respiratory support were variable between studies, if reported at all. Three studies (21.4%) included feeding protocols. Six studies (42.9%) identified use of feeding experts. While many studies commented that orally feeding neonates on NIV is safe, the only study to instrumentally assess swallow safety found that a significant number of neonates silently aspirated during feeding on continuous positive airway pressure.

CONCLUSIONS

Strong data supporting practices related to orally feeding infants in the NICU who require NIV are scarce. The types and levels of NIV, and decision-making criteria, are variable across studies and preclude clinically useful conclusions. There is a pressing need for additional research pertaining to orally feeding this population so that an evidence-based standard of care can be established. Specifically, this research should elucidate the impact of different types and levels of NIV on the mechanistic properties of swallowing as defined via instrumental assessment.

Clinical practice guidelines: management of severe bronchiolitis in infants under 12 months old admitted to a pediatric critical care unit

PURPOSE

We present guidelines for the management of infants under 12 months of age with severe bronchiolitis with the aim of creating a series of pragmatic recommendations for a patient subgroup that is poorly individualized in national and international guidelines.

METHODS

Twenty-five French-speaking experts, all members of the Groupe Francophone de Réanimation et Urgence Pédiatriques (French-speaking group of paediatric intensive and emergency care; GFRUP) (Algeria, Belgium, Canada, France, Switzerland), collaborated from 2021 to 2022 through teleconferences and face-to-face meetings. The guidelines cover five areas: (1) criteria for admission to a pediatric critical care unit, (2) environment and monitoring, (3) feeding and hydration, (4) ventilatory support and (5) adjuvant therapies. The questions were written in the Patient-Intervention-Comparison-Outcome (PICO) format. An extensive Anglophone and Francophone literature search indexed in the MEDLINE database via PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane and Embase was performed using pre-established keywords. The texts were analyzed and classified according to the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) methodology. When this method did not apply, an expert opinion was given. Each of these recommendations was voted on by all the experts according to the Delphi methodology.

RESULTS

This group proposes 40 recommendations. The GRADE methodology could be applied for 17 of them (3 strong, 14 conditional) and an expert opinion was given for the remaining 23. All received strong approval during the first round of voting.

CONCLUSION

These guidelines cover the different aspects in the management of severe bronchiolitis in infants admitted to pediatric critical care units. Compared to the different ways to manage patients with severe bronchiolitis described in the literature, our original work proposes an overall less invasive approach in terms of monitoring and treatment.

Commentary on High-Flow Nasal Cannula and Continuous Positive Airway Pressure Practices After the First-Line Support for Assistance in Breathing in Children Trials

Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) and heated humidified high-flow nasal cannula (HFNC) are commonly used to treat children admitted to the PICU who require more respiratory support than simple oxygen therapy. Much has been published on these two treatment modalities over the past decade, both in Pediatric Critical Care Medicine (PCCM ) and elsewhere. The majority of these studies are observational analyses of clinical, administrative, or quality improvement datasets and, therefore, are only able to establish associations between exposure to treatment and outcomes, not causation. None of the initial randomized clinical trials comparing HFNC and CPAP were definitive due to their relatively small sample sizes with insufficient power for meaningful clinical outcomes (e.g., escalation to bilevel noninvasive ventilation or intubation, duration of PICU-level respiratory support, mortality) and often yielded ambiguous findings or conflicting results. The recent publication of the First-Line Support for Assistance in Breathing in Children (FIRST-ABC) trials represented a major step toward understanding the role of CPAP and HFNC use in critically ill children. These large, pragmatic, randomized clinical trials examined the efficacy of CPAP and HFNC either for "step up" (i.e., escalation in respiratory support) during acute respiratory deterioration or for "step down" (i.e., postextubation need for respiratory support) management. This narrative review examines the body of evidence on HFNC published in PCCM , contextualizes the findings of randomized clinical trials of CPAP and HFNC up to and including the FIRST-ABC trials, provides guidance to PICU clinicians on how to implement the literature in current practice, and discusses remaining knowledge gaps and future research priorities.

Development and Validation of a New Screening Tool with Non-Invasive Indicators for Assessment of Malnutrition Risk in Hospitalised Children

There is no evidence of the most effective nutritional screening tool for hospitalized children. The present study aimed to develop a quick, simple, and valid screening tool for identifying malnutrition risk of hospital admission with non-invasive indicators. A cross-sectional study was conducted. Children`s nutritional baseline using a questionnaire, subjective malnutritional risk, and Subjective Global Nutritional Assessment were assessed on admission. Concurrent validity was assessed using American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (ASPEN)and Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics assessment and Subjective Global Nutritional Assessment tool. A new screening tool Simple Pediatric Nutritional risk Screening tool (SPENS) was developed, and sensitivity, specificity and reliability were evaluated. A total of 180 children aged from 1 month to 18 years were included (142 in the development phase and 38 in the validation phase). SPENS consist of four variables and shows almost perfect agreement with subjective malnutritional risk assessment (κ = 0.837) with high sensitivity and specificity (93.3% and 91.3% respectively). Compared with Subjective Global Nutritional Assessment and ASPEN and Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics assessment, SPENS had sensitivity 92.9% and 86.7%, a specificity of 87.5% and 87.0%, and an overall agreement of 0.78 and 0.728, respectively. Due to the fast, simple, easy, and practical to use, screening the SPENS can be performed by nurses, physicians, and dieticians.

Enteral Feeding for Children on Bilevel Positive Pressure Ventilation for Status Asthmaticus

A retrospective data analysis was conducted to evaluate enteral nutrition practices for children admitted with status asthmaticus in a single-center pediatric intensive care unit. Of 406 charts, 315 were analyzed (63% male); 135 on bilevel positive airway pressure ventilation (BIPAP) and 180 on simple mask. Overall median age and weight were 6.0 (interquartile range [IQR]: 6.0) years and 24.8 (IQR: 20.8) kg, respectively. All children studied were on full feeds while still on BIPAP and simple mask; 99.3 and 100% were fed per oral, respectively. Median time to initiation of feeds and full feeds was longer in the BIPAP group, 11.0 (IQR: 20) and 23.0 hours (IQR: 26), versus simple mask group, 4.3 (IQR: 7) and 12.0 hours (IQR: 15), p  = 0.001. The results remained similar after adjusting for gender, weight, clinical asthma score at admission, use of adjunct therapy, and duration of continuous albuterol. By 24 hours, 81.5% of patients on BIPAP and 96.6% on simple mask were started on feeds. Compared with simple mask, patients on BIPAP were sicker with median asthma score at admission of 4 (IQR: 2) versus 3 (IQR: 2) on simple mask, requiring more adjunct therapy (80.0 vs. 43.9%), and a longer median length of therapy of 41.0 (IQR: 41) versus 20.0 hours (IQR: 29), respectively, p  = 0.001. There were no complications such as aspiration pneumonia, and none required invasive mechanical ventilation in either group. Enteral nutrition was effectively and safely initiated and continued for children admitted with status asthmaticus, including those on noninvasive bilevel ventilation therapy.

A Retrospective Analysis of Feeding Practices and Complications in Patients with Critical Bronchiolitis on Non-Invasive Respiratory Support

Limited data exist regarding feeding pediatric patients managed on non-invasive respiratory support (NRS) modes that augment oxygenation and ventilation in the setting of acute respiratory failure. We conducted a retrospective cohort study to explore the safety of feeding patients managed on NRS with acute respiratory failure secondary to bronchiolitis. Children up to two years old with critical bronchiolitis managed on continuous positive airway pressure, bilevel positive airway pressure, or RAM cannula were included. Of the 178 eligible patients, 64 were reportedly nil per os (NPO), while 114 received enteral nutrition (EN). Overall equivalent in severity of illness, younger patients populated the EN group, while the NPO group experienced a higher incidence of intubation. Duration of stay in the pediatric intensive care unit and non-invasive respiratory support were shorter in the NPO group, though intubation eliminated the former difference. Within the EN group, ninety percent had feeds initiated within 48 h and 94% reached full feeds within 7 days of NRS initiation, with an 8% complication and <1% aspiration rate. Reported complications did not result in escalation of respiratory support. Notably, a significant improvement in heart rate and respiratory rate was noted after feeds initiation. Taken together, our study supports the practice of early enteral nutrition in patients with critical bronchiolitis requiring NRS.

Factors influencing adequate protein and energy delivery among critically ill children with heart disease in pediatric intensive care unit

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Inadequate nutrition delivery in critically ill children has shown associated with poor clinical outcomes. Therefore, identifying barriers to deliver adequate nutrition is vital. The aim of this study was to identify factors influencing adequate protein and energy delivery among critically ill children with heart disease in pediatric intensive care unit (PICU).

METHODS

This single-centre prospective study, involved children aged from birth to 3 years old, admitted to PICU longer than 72 hours. They received either enteral nutrition (EN) or combination of EN and partial parenteral nutrition (PPN). Clinical and nutrition delivery characteristics were recorded from admission until transferred out of PICU. Multiple regression analysis at significant level p < 0.05 were used to identify independent risk factors for lower protein and energy intake.

RESULTS

One hundred and thirty-nine patients were included in this study with median age 6.5 (1.8-20.6) months and median PICU length of stay of 6 (4-7) days. The median energy and protein adequacy were 83.2% and 46.7%, respectively. In multivariable analysis, children who underwent surgery (AOR 0.97; 95% CI 0.27-0.75; p = 0.041), with fluid restriction (AOR 0.97; 95% CI 0.25-0.73; p = 0.041), longer length of PICU stay (AOR 0.35; 95% CI 0.18-0.64; p = 0.001) and longer feeding interruptions (AOR 3.57; 95% CI 1.39-9.15; p = 0.008) were more likely to have lower energy intake. Children at risk of malnutrition (weight-for-age Z score of < -2 SD) (AOR 2.54; 95% CI 1.12 to 5.77; p = 0.026) and longer duration of mechanical ventilation (AOR 0.73; 95% CI 0.53 to 0.98; p = 0.041) were more likely to have lower protein intake.

CONCLUSION

This study highlighted the factors influencing adequate protein and energy delivery in critically ill children with heart disease in PICU. Strategies to improve the nutrition delivery in this group of patients should be outlined and implemented by the dietitians along with multidisciplinary team.

Enteral Feeding of Children on Noninvasive Respiratory Support: A Four-Center European Study

OBJECTIVES

To explore enteral feeding practices and the achievement of energy targets in children on noninvasive respiratory support, in four European PICUs.

DESIGN

A four-center retrospective cohort study.

SETTING

Four PICUs: Bristol, United Kingdom; Lyon, France; Madrid, Spain; and Rotterdam, The Netherlands.

PATIENTS

Children in PICU who required acute noninvasive respiratory support in the first 7 days. The primary outcome was achievement of standardized kcal/goal.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

A total of 325 children were included (Bristol 104; Lyon 99; Madrid 72; and Rotterdam 50). The median (interquartile range) age and weight were 3 months (1-16 mo) and 5 kg (4-10 mo), respectively, with 66% admitted with respiratory failure. There were large between-center variations in practices. Overall, 190/325 (58.5%) received noninvasive respiratory support in order to prevent intubation and 41.5% after extubation. The main modes of noninvasive respiratory support used were high-flow nasal cannula 43.6%, bilevel positive airway pressure 33.2%, and continuous positive airway pressure 21.2%. Most children (77.8%) were fed gastrically (48.4% continuously) and the median time to the first feed after noninvasive respiratory support initiation was 4 hours (interquartile range, 1-9 hr). The median percentage of time a child was nil per oral while on noninvasive respiratory support was 4 hours (2-13 hr). Overall, children received a median of 56% (25-82%) of their energy goals compared with a standardized target of 0.85 of the recommended dietary allowance. Patients receiving step-up noninvasive respiratory support (p = < 0.001), those on bilevel positive airway pressure or continuous positive airway pressure (compared with high-flow nasal cannula) (p = < 0.001), and those on continuous feeds (p = < 0.001) achieved significantly more of their kcal goal. Gastrointestinal complications varied from 4.8-20%, with the most common reported being vomiting in 54/325 (16.6%), other complications occurred in 40/325 (12.3%) children, but pulmonary aspiration was rare 5/325 (1.5%).

CONCLUSIONS

Children on noninvasive respiratory support tolerated feeding well, with relatively few complications, but prospective trials are now required to determine the optimal timing and feeding method for these children.

Oral feeding for infants and children receiving nasal continuous positive airway pressure and high flow nasal cannula: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

The aim of this systematic review was to determine whether introduction of oral feeding for infants and children receiving nasal continuous positive airway pressure (nCPAP) or high flow nasal cannula (HFNC) respiratory support facilitates achievement of full oral feeding without adverse effects, compared to no oral feeding (NPO; nil per oral) on CPAP or HFNC.

METHODS

A protocol was lodged with the PROSPERO International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews. We searched Medline, Embase, CINAHL, CENTRAL and AustHealth from database inception to 10th June 2020. Study population included children (preterm to < 18 years) on nCPAP or HFNC who were orally feeding. Primary outcomes included full or partial oral feeding and oropharyngeal aspiration. Secondary outcomes examined adverse events including clinical signs of aspiration, aspiration pneumonia and deterioration in respiratory status.

RESULTS

The search retrieved 1684 studies following duplicate removal. Title and abstract screening identified 70 studies for full text screening and of these, 16 were included in the review for data extraction. Methods of non-invasive ventilation (NIV) included nCPAP (n = 6), nCPAP and HFNC (n = 5) and HFNC (n = 5). A metanalysis was not possible as respiratory modes and cohorts were not comparable. Eleven studies reported on adverse events. Oral feeding safety was predominantly based on retrospective data from chart entries and clinical signs, with only one study using an instrumental swallow evaluation (VFSS) to determine aspiration status.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings are insufficient to conclude whether commencing oral feeding whilst on nCPAP or HFNC facilitates transition to full oral feeding without adverse effects, including oropharyngeal aspiration. Further research is required to determine the safety and efficacy of oral feeding on CPAP and HFNC for infants and children.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

PROSPERO registration number:  CRD42016039325 .

Enteral Nutrition Improves Vital Signs in Children With Bronchiolitis on Noninvasive Ventilation

OBJECTIVES

In children hospitalized for bronchiolitis, enteral nutrition (EN) practices during noninvasive ventilation (NIV) vary widely. We sought to assess the potential impact of EN by observing changes in physiometric indices (heart rate [HR] and respiratory rate [RR]) before and after EN initiation.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective cohort study in children <2 years of age hospitalized for bronchiolitis receiving NIV from 2017 to 2019 in a quaternary ICU. The primary outcome was patient HR and RR before and after EN initiation. Descriptive data included demographics, anthropometrics, comorbidities, NIV parameters, EN characteristics, and general hospital outcomes. Analyses included paired comparative and descriptive statistics.

RESULTS

Of the 124 children studied, 85 (69%) were permitted EN at a median of 12 (interquartile range [IQR]: 7 to 29) hours. The route was oral (76.5%), nasogastric (15.3%), or postpyloric (8.2%) and was predominantly started during high-flow nasal cannula (71%) at flow rates of 1 (IQR: 0.7 to 1.4) L/kg per minute. After EN initiation, reductions in the median RR (percentage change: -11 [IQR: -23 to 3]; P < .01) and HR (percentage change: -5 [IQR: -12 to 1]; P < .01) were noted. Those permitted EN were younger (5 [IQR: 2 to 11] vs 11 [IQR: 3 to 17] months; P < .01) and more likely to have bronchopulmonary dysplasia (19% vs 5%; P = .04). Malnutrition rates, comorbidities, admission timing, flow rates, length of stay, and NIV duration did not differ for those provided or not provided EN. No aspiration events were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Reductions between pre- and postprandial RR after EN initiation among children hospitalized for bronchiolitis on NIV were observed without clinically significant aspiration. These findings support existing data that suggest that EN is safe during NIV and may lessen distress in some patients.

Nasogastric tube, a warning sign for high-flow nasal cannula failure in infants with bronchiolitis

High-flow nasal cannula (HFNC) therapy is routinely used in the treatment of infants with bronchiolitis. This study sought to identify markers associated with failure of HFNC therapy that serve as warnings for early staging of other ventilatory support products. A retrospective study of infants with a diagnosis of bronchiolitis, receiving HFNC and admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit from January 2016 to June 2017, was conducted. The subjects were divided into two study groups according to the success or failure of HFNC therapy. Risk factors were assessed using the following variables: age, time between hospital admission and start of HFNC, equipment model, and the need for a nasogastric tube. Eighty-one infants were studied, and 18 (21.7%) of them exhibited therapy failure. The results of the logistic models showed that the chances of failure for patients requiring a nasogastric tube during HFNC use were more likely than those for patients with oral nutrition (OR = 8.17; 95% CI 2.30–28.99; p = 0.001). The HFNC failure was not associated with the device used (OR = 1.56; 95% CI 0.54–4.52; p = 0.41), time between hospital admission and HFNC installation (OR = 1.01; 95% CI 0.98–1.03; p = 0.73), or age (OR = 0.98; 95% CI 0.82–1.17; p = 0.82). Among late outcomes evaluated, the patients with therapy failure had longer total durations of O₂ use (p < 0.001) and longer hospital stays (p < 0.001). The need to use a nasogastric tube during HFNC use was associated with HFNC therapy failure and can be considered as a marker of severity in children with bronchiolitis.

[Nutritional assessment and clinical application of nutritional risk screening tools in critically ill children]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the nutritional status of critically ill hospitalized children and to explore the value of nutritional risk screening tools in the nutritional risk assessment.

METHODS

The clinical data of 211 critically ill children who were admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit from November 2017 to April 2018 were collected to evaluate their nutritional status on admission and at discharge. Two nutritional risk screening tools, STRONGkids and PYMS, were used for nutritional risk screening in the 211 children.

RESULTS

Among the 211 patients, 68 (32.2%) were found to have malnutrition on admission, with 34 cases each of moderate and severe malnutrition. Moderate or high nutritional risk was found in 154 cases (73.0%) with STRONGkids and 165 cases (78.2%) with PYMS. Using weight-for-age Z-score as the gold standard to evaluate the efficacy of the two nutritional risk screening tools, the areas under the receiver operating characteristic curves of STRONGkids and PYMS were 0.822 and 0.759 respectively. Both tools had a significant clinical value in screening for malnutrition (P<0.05), but there was no significant difference in clinical efficacy between them (P>0.05). With the optimal cut-off value of 3 points, the sensitivities of STRONGkids and PYMS for screening of malnutrition were 92.1% and 76.2% respectively. The children with moderate or high nutritional risk on admission had a significantly poorer prognosis than those with low nutritional risk (P=0.014 and 0.001 respectively). The children with severe malnutrition had a significantly poorer prognosis than those with normal nutrition (P=0.0009).

CONCLUSIONS

The detection rates of malnutrition and nutritional risk are high in critically ill children. Malnutrition/high nutritional risk is related to a poor prognosis. Both STRONGkids and PYMS have a clinical value for nutritional risk screening in critically ill children, and they have similar clinical efficacy; however, STRONGkids is more sensitive.

Impact of energy deficit during hospitalization and biomarkers at admission on clinical outcomes in critically ill children: A longitudinal study

BACKGROUND & AIMS

To evaluate the impact of energy deficit during hospitalization and the biomarkers albumin and C-reactive protein (CRP) on the clinical outcomes length of stay (LOS) and duration of mechanical ventilation (DMV) in children and adolescents admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) of a private hospital in Rio de Janeiro.

METHODS

A longitudinal, retrospective study was conducted of the medical records of patients admitted to the PICU from May 2016 to June 2017 who received enteral nutrition (EN) for 72 h or longer. The cut-off points for serum albumin and CRP were set at ≥3.5 and <2.0, respectively. The energy balance was calculated as the difference between the energy prescribed and the energy received by the patient. The comparison of continuous variables related to LOS and DMV was assessed using Student's t-test and the Mann-Whitney test. The significance value was set at p < 0.05.

RESULTS

Ninety-three patients were selected, with a median age of 32 (±39.49) months. The mean serum albumin and CRP levels were 4.04 (±0.59) and 4.67 (±7.40), respectively. In linear regression models adjusted for length of stay, reduced albumin, increased CRP, and negative energy balance were positively associated. In the models adjusted to DMV, the values for reduced albumin and increased CRP were significant.

CONCLUSION

A significant association was found between serum albumin and CRP at admission and the outcomes under investigation, LOS and DMV. Energy deficit was also associated with LOS.

Nutritional management of young infants presenting with acute bronchiolitis in Belgium, France and Switzerland: survey of current practices and documentary search of national guidelines worldwide

Feeding difficulties are common in young infants presenting with acute bronchiolitis, but limited data is available to guide clinicians adapting nutritional management. We aimed to assess paediatricians' nutritional practices among Western Europe French speaking countries. A survey was disseminated to describe advice given to parents for at home nutritional support, in hospital nutritional management, and preferred methods for enteral nutrition and for intravenous fluid management. A documentary search of international guidelines was concomitantly conducted. Ninety-three (66%) contacted physicians responded. Feeding difficulties were a common indication for infants' admission. Written protocols were rarely available. Enteral nutrition was favoured most of the time when oral nutrition was insufficient and might be withheld in case of severe dyspnoea to decrease respiratory workload. Half of physicians were aware of hyponatremia risk and pathophysiology, and isotonic intravenous solutions were used in less than 15% of centres. International guideline search (23 countries) showed a lack of detailed nutritional management recommendations in most of them.Conclusion: practices were inconsistent among physicians. Guidelines detailed nutritional management poorly. Awareness of hyponatremia risk in relation to intravenous hypotonic fluids and of the safety of enteral hydration and nutrition is insufficient. New guidelines including detailed nutritional management recommendations are urgently needed. What is Known? • Infants presenting with acute bronchiolitis face feeding difficulties. • Underfeeding may promote undernutrition, and intravenous hydration with hypotonic fluids may induce hyponatremia. What is New? • Physicians' nutritional practices are inconsistent and awareness of hyponatremia risk and pathophysiology is insufficient among physicians. • Awareness of hyponatremia risk and pathophysiology is insufficient among physicians. • The reasons for enteral nutrition withholding in bronchiolitis infants are not evidence based, and national guidelines of acute bronchiolitis across the world are elusive regarding nutritional management. • National guidelines of acute bronchiolitis across the world are elusive regarding nutritional management.

Accuracy of Administrative Codes for Distinguishing Positive Pressure Ventilation From High-Flow Nasal Cannula

OBJECTIVES

Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV) is increasingly used in critically ill pediatric patients, despite limited data on safety and efficacy. Administrative data may be a good resource for observational studies. Therefore, we sought to assess the performance of the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision procedure code for NIPPV.

METHODS

Patients admitted to the PICU requiring NIPPV or heated high-flow nasal cannula (HHFNC) over the 11-month study period were identified from the Virtual PICU System database. The gold standard was manual review of the electronic health record to verify the use of NIPPV or HHFNC among the cohort. The presence or absence of a NIPPV procedure code was determined by using administrative data. Test characteristics with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were generated, comparing administrative data with the gold standard.

RESULTS

Among the cohort (n = 562), the majority were younger than 5 years, and the most common primary diagnosis was bronchiolitis. Most (82%) required NIPPV, whereas 18% required only HHFNC. The NIPPV code had a sensitivity of 91.1% (95% CI: 88.2%-93.6%) and a specificity of 57.6% (95% CI: 47.2%-67.5%), with a positive likelihood ratio of 2.15 (95% CI: 1.70-2.71) and negative likelihood ratio of 0.15 (95% CI: 0.11-0.22).

CONCLUSIONS

Among our critically ill pediatric cohort, NIPPV procedure codes had high sensitivity but only moderate specificity. On the basis of our study results, there is a risk of misclassification, specifically failure to identify children who require NIPPV, when using administrative data to study the use of NIPPV in this population.