Super-Refractory Status Epilepticus in Children: A Retrospective Cohort Study

Update in Pediatric Neurocritical Care: What a Neurologist Caring for Critically Ill Children Needs to Know

Currently nearly one-quarter of admissions to pediatric intensive care units (PICUs) worldwide are for neurocritical care diagnoses that are associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Pediatric neurocritical care is a rapidly evolving field with unique challenges due to not only age-related responses to primary neurologic insults and their treatments but also the rarity of pediatric neurocritical care conditions at any given institution. The structure of pediatric neurocritical care services therefore is most commonly a collaborative model where critical care medicine physicians coordinate care and are supported by a multidisciplinary team of pediatric subspecialists, including neurologists. While pediatric neurocritical care lies at the intersection between critical care and the neurosciences, this narrative review focuses on the most common clinical scenarios encountered by pediatric neurologists as consultants in the PICU and synthesizes the recent evidence, best practices, and ongoing research in these cases. We provide an in-depth review of (1) the evaluation and management of abnormal movements (seizures/status epilepticus and status dystonicus); (2) acute weakness and paralysis (focusing on pediatric stroke and select pediatric neuroimmune conditions); (3) neuromonitoring modalities using a pathophysiology-driven approach; (4) neuroprotective strategies for which there is evidence (e.g., pediatric severe traumatic brain injury, post-cardiac arrest care, and ischemic stroke and hemorrhagic stroke); and (5) best practices for neuroprognostication in pediatric traumatic brain injury, cardiac arrest, and disorders of consciousness, with highlights of the 2023 updates on Brain Death/Death by Neurological Criteria. Our review of the current state of pediatric neurocritical care from the viewpoint of what a pediatric neurologist in the PICU needs to know is intended to improve knowledge for providers at the bedside with the goal of better patient care and outcomes.

Can critical care transport be safely reduced in children intubated during emergency management of status epilepticus in the United Kingdom: a national audit with case-control analysis

OBJECTIVE

This study describes the baseline clinical characteristics, predictors of successful extubation at referring hospitals and short-term outcomes of children intubated for status epilepticus and referred to United Kingdom (UK) paediatric critical care transport teams (PCCTs).

DESIGN

Multicentre audit with case-control analysis, conducted between 1 September 2018 and 1 September 2020.

SETTING

This study involved 10 UK PCCTs.

PATIENTS

Children over 1 month of age intubated during emergency management for status epilepticus (SE), referred to UK PCCTs. Patients with trauma, requiring time-critical neurosurgical intervention or those with a tracheostomy were excluded.

INTERVENTIONS

No interventions were implemented.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Out of the 1622 referrals for SE, 1136 (70%) were intubated at referral. The median age was 3 years (IQR 1.25-6.54 years). Among the intubated children, 396 (34.8%) were extubated locally by the referring team, with 19 (4.8%) requiring reintubation. Therefore, the overall rate of successful extubation was 33% (377/1136). There was significant variation between PCCTs, with local extubation rates ranging from 2% to 74%. Multivariable analyses showed region/PCCT, contributing diagnosis, acute changes on CT, preceding encephalopathy and type of continuous sedation (midazolam) used postintubation were significantly associated with transfer to a critical care unit.

CONCLUSION

This study highlights wide regional variation in early extubation practices. Regions with high successful extubation rates have established extubation guidelines from PCCTs. Successful extubation represents critical care transports that have been avoided.

Neuromodulation Techniques in Children with Super-Refractory Status Epilepticus

Status epilepticus (SE) is a life-threatening condition and medical emergency which can have lifelong consequences, including neuronal death and alteration of neuronal networks, resulting in long-term neurologic and cognitive deficits in children. When standard pharmacological treatment for SE is not successful in controlling seizures, the condition evolves to refractory SE (rSE) and finally to super-refractory SE (srSE) if it exceeds 24 h despite using anaesthetics. In this systematic review, we present literature data on the potential uses of clinical neuromodulation techniques for the management of srSE in children, including electroconvulsive therapy, vagus nerve stimulation, and deep brain stimulation. The evaluation of these techniques is limited by the small number of published paediatric cases (n = 25, one with two techniques) in peer-reviewed articles (n = 18). Although neuromodulation strategies have not been tested through randomised, prospective controlled clinical trials, this review presents the existing data and the potential benefits of neuromodulation therapy, suggesting that these techniques, when available, could be considered at earlier stages within the course of srSE intending to prevent long-term neurologic complications. Clinical trials aiming to establish whether early intervention can prevent long-term sequelae are necessary in order to establish the potential clinical value of neuromodulation techniques for the treatment of srSE in children.

A Comparison of Ketamine and Midazolam as First-Line Anesthetic Infusions for Pediatric Status Epilepticus

BACKGROUND

Pediatric refractory status epilepticus (RSE) often requires management with anesthetic infusions, but few data compare first-line anesthetics. This study aimed to compare the efficacy and adverse effects of midazolam and ketamine infusions as first-line anesthetics for pediatric RSE.

METHODS

Retrospective single-center study of consecutive study participants treated with ketamine or midazolam as the first-line anesthetic infusions for RSE at a quaternary care children's hospital from December 1, 2017, until September 15, 2021.

RESULTS

We identified 117 study participants (28 neonates), including 79 (68%) who received midazolam and 38 (32%) who received ketamine as the first-line anesthetic infusions. Seizures terminated more often in study participants administered ketamine (61%, 23/38) than midazolam (28%, 22/79; odds ratio [OR] 3.97, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.76-8.98; P < 0.01). Adverse effects occurred more often in study participants administered midazolam (24%, 20/79) than ketamine (3%, 1/38; OR 12.54, 95% CI 1.61-97.43; P = 0.016). Study participants administered ketamine were younger, ketamine was used more often for children with acute symptomatic seizures, and midazolam was used more often for children with epilepsy. Multivariable logistic regression of seizure termination by first-line anesthetic infusion (ketamine or midazolam) including age at SE onset, SE etiology category, and individual seizure duration at anesthetic infusion initiation indicated seizures were more likely to terminate following ketamine than midazolam (OR 4.00, 95% CI 1.69-9.49; P = 0.002) and adverse effects were more likely following midazolam than ketamine (OR 13.41, 95% CI 1.61-111.04; P = 0.016). Survival to discharge was higher among study participants who received midazolam (82%, 65/79) than ketamine (55%, 21/38; P = 0.002), although treating clinicians did not attribute any deaths to ketamine or midazolam.

CONCLUSIONS

Among children and neonates with RSE, ketamine was more often followed by seizure termination and less often associated with adverse effects than midazolam when administered as the first-line anesthetic infusion. Further prospective data are needed to compare first-line anesthetics for RSE.

Treatment Guideline Nonadherence Pretransport Associated With Need for Higher Level of Care in Children Transferred to a Pediatric Tertiary Care Center for Status Epilepticus

OBJECTIVES

We sought to investigate the association between adherence to the American Epilepsy Society (AES) 2016 guidelines for management of convulsive status epilepticus (SE) and clinical outcomes among children requiring interhospital transport for SE. We hypothesized that pretransport guideline nonadherence would be associated with needing higher level of care posttransfer.

METHODS

This was a retrospective cohort study of children aged 30 days to 18 years transferred to our pediatric tertiary center from 2017 to 2019 for management of SE. Their care episodes were classified as 2016 American Epilepsy Society guideline adherent or nonadherent. There were 40 referring hospitals represented in this cohort.

RESULTS

Of 260 care episodes, 55 (21%) were guideline adherent, 184 (71%) were guideline nonadherent, and 21 (8%) had insufficient data to determine guideline adherence. Compared with the adherent group, patients in the nonadherent care group had longer hospitalizations (32 hours [17-68] vs 21 hours [7-48], P = 0.006), were more likely to require intensive care unit admission (47% vs 31%), and less likely to be discharged home from the emergency department (16% vs 35%; χ 2 test, P = 0.01). Intubation rates did not differ significantly between groups (25% vs 18%, P = 0.37). When we fit a multivariable model to adjust for confounding variables, guideline nonadherence was associated with need for higher level of care (odds ratio, 2.04; 95% confidence interval, 1.04-3.99). Treatment guideline adherence did not improve over the 3-year study period (2017: 22%, 2018: 19%, 2019: 29% [χ 2 test for differences between any 2 years, P = 0.295]).

CONCLUSIONS

Guideline nonadherence pretransport was associated with longer hospitalizations and need for higher level of care among children transferred for SE at our institution. These findings suggest a need to improve SE guideline adherence through multifaceted quality improvement efforts targeting both the prehospital and community hospital settings.

Epileptic Status in a PEDiatric cohort (ESPED) requiring intensive care treatment: A multicenter, national, two-year prospective surveillance study

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to provide seizure etiology, semiology, underlying conditions, and out-of- and in-hospital diagnostics, treatment, and outcome data on children with out-of- or in-hospital-onset status epilepticus (SE) according to the International League Against Epilepsy definition that required admission to the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) for ≥4 hours.

METHODS

This prospective national surveillance study on SE in childhood and adolescence was conducted over 2 years (07/2019-06/2021).

RESULTS

This study examined 481 SE episodes in 481 children with a median age of 43 months (1 month to 17 years 11 months), of which 46.2% were female and 50.7% had a previous seizure history. The most frequent acute SE cause was a prolonged, complicated febrile seizure (20.6%). The most common initial seizure types were generalized seizures (49.9%), focal seizures (18.0%), and unknown types (12.1%); 40.5% of patients suffered from refractory SE and 5.0% from super-refractory SE. The three most common medications administered by nonmedically trained individuals were diazepam, midazolam, and antipyretics. The three most frequent anti-seizure medications (ASMs) administered by the emergency physician were midazolam, diazepam, and propofol. The three most common ASMs used in the clinical setting were midazolam, levetiracetam, and phenobarbital. New ASMs administered included lacosamide, brivaracetam, perampanel, stiripentol, and eslicarbazepine. Status epilepticus terminated in 16.0% in the preclinical setting, 19.1% in the emergency department, and 58.0% in the PICU; the outcome was unknown for 6.9%. The median PICU stay length was 2 (1-121) days. The median modified Rankin scale was 1 (0-5) on admission and 2 (0-6) at discharge. New neurological deficits after SE were observed in 6.2%. The mortality rate was 3.5%.

SIGNIFICANCE

This study provides current real-world out-of- and in-hospital data on pediatric SE requiring PICU admission. New ASMs are more frequently used in this population. This knowledge may help generate a more standardized approach.

Long-term neuropsychological outcomes in children with febrile infection-related epilepsy syndrome (FIRES) treated with anakinra

Background

Febrile-infection related epilepsy syndrome (FIRES) is a rare epilepsy syndrome in which a previously healthy individual develops refractory status epilepticus in the setting of a preceding febrile illness. There are limited data regarding detailed long-term outcomes. This study aims to describe the long-term neuropsychological outcomes in a series of pediatric patients with FIRES.

Methods

This is a retrospective multi-center case series of pediatric patients with a diagnosis of FIRES treated acutely with anakinra who had neuropsychological testing at least 12 months after status epilepticus onset. Each patient underwent comprehensive neuropsychological evaluation as part of routine clinical care. Additional data collection included the acute seizure presentation, medication exposures, and outcomes.

Results

There were six patients identified with a median age of 11.08 years (IQR: 8.19-11.23) at status epilepticus onset. Anakinra initiation was a median of 11 days (IQR: 9.25-13.50) after hospital admission. All patients had ongoing seizures and none of the patients returned to baseline cognitive function with a median follow-up of 40 months (IQR 35-51). Of the five patients with serial full-scale IQ testing, three demonstrated a decline in scores over time. Testing results revealed a diffuse pattern of deficits across domains and all patients required special education and/or accommodations for academic learning.

Conclusions

Despite treatment with anakinra, neuropsychological outcomes in this series of pediatric patients with FIRES demonstrated ongoing diffuse neurocognitive impairment. Future research will need to explore the predictors of long-term neurocognitive outcomes in patients with FIRES and to evaluate if acute treatment interventions improve these outcomes.

A bibliometric and visual analysis of low carbohydrate diet

Introduction

Numerous studies have confirmed the effects of low carbohydrate diet (LChD) on metabolism and chronic diseases. However, there were no bibliometric studies on LChD. This study was conducted through a bibliometric analysis to investigate the current status, hotspots and frontiers trends.

Methods

We searched all research publications related to LChD from 2002 to 2021 on the Web of Scientific Core Collection (WoSCC). CiteSpace and VOSviewer software was used to analyze countries/regions, institutions, journals, authors, references, and keywords.

Results

A total of 6938 papers were included, with an increasing trend of annual publication. LChD categories mainly included nutrition, endocrinology, and neurosciences which reflected the interdisciplinary characteristics. USA was with the largest number and the world science center in LChD field. Universities were main research institutions and five of the top 10 institutions were from USA. Eric Heath Kossoff had 101 publications and ranked first. Nutrients was the leading journal. "A randomized trial of a low-carbohydrate diet for obesity" and "Obesity" were considered to be the most co-cited and cited reference respectively. The hotspots of LChD are four aspects, "ketogenic diet", "metabolism disease", "cardiovascular disease" and "cancer". We summarized that "oxidative stress", "gut microbiota", and "inflammation factors" are becoming frontiers trends of LChD research in the future and deserve further study.

Discussion

Over the past 20 years research on LChD has gained great attention. To better explore LChD field, multilevel mechanism studies will be required in the future.

Management and prognosis of pediatric status epilepticus

Background

Pediatric status epilepticus is a neurological emergency with the potential for severe developmental and neurological consequences. Prompt diagnosis and management are necessary.

Objectives

To outline the existing best available evidence for managing pediatric and neonatal status epilepticus, in the light of emerging randomized controlled studies. We also focus on short and long-term prognoses.

Materials and methods

This is a systematic overview of the existing literature.

Results

Status epilepticus, its treatment, and prognosis are usually based on the continuation of seizure activity at 5 and 30 min. Refractory and super-refractory status epilepticus further complicates management and requires continuous EEG monitoring with regular reassessment and adjustment of therapy. Benzodiazepines have been accepted as the first line of treatment on the basis of reasonable evidence. Emerging randomized controlled trials demonstrate equal efficacy for parenterally administered phenytoin, levetiracetam, and valproic acid as second-line agents. Beyond this, the evidence for third-line options is sparse. However, encouraging evidence for midazolam and ketamine exists with further data required for immunological, dietary, and surgical interventions.

Conclusion

Our overview of the management of pediatric and neonatal status epilepticus based on available evidence emphasizes the need for evidence-based guidelines to manage status epilepticus that fails to respond to second-line treatment.