Current Clinical Applications and Future Potential of Diffusion Tensor Imaging in Traumatic Brain Injury

Optimal Diagnostic Strategies for Concussion-Related Vision Disorders: A Review

Concussions are a mild form of traumatic brain injury (TBI) that is typically self-limited and transient with a high prevalence within our communities. Due to the vast visual network interconnectivity, visual symptoms secondary to a concussion occur about 90% of the time. A gold standard to confirm concussion acutely has not been well established. Visual function testing based on symptoms remains the standard of care in off-site evaluation for diagnosis of oculomotor dysfunction. This review covers the current diagnostic strategies for vision based disorders post-concussion for sideline testing, off-site testing, and research driven testing.

Magnetic resonance imaging in traumatic brain injury: a survey of clinical practitioners' experiences and views on current practice and obstacles

INTRODUCTION

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has revolutionized our capacity to examine brain alterations in traumatic brain injury (TBI). However, little is known about the level of implementation of MRI techniques in clinical practice in TBI and associated obstacles.

METHODS

A diverse set of health professionals completed 19 multiple choice and free text survey questions.

RESULTS

Of the 81 respondents, 73.4% reported that they acquire/order MRI scans in TBI patients, and 66% indicated they would prefer MRI be more often used with this cohort. The greatest impediment for MRI usage was scanner availability (57.1%). Less than half of respondents (42.1%) indicated that they perform advanced MRI analysis. Factors such as dedicated experts within the team (44.4%) and user-friendly MRI analysis tools (40.7%), were listed as potentially helpful to implement advanced MRI analyses in clinical practice.

CONCLUSION

Results suggest a wide variability in the purpose, timing, and composition of the scanning protocol of clinical MRI after TBI. Three recommendations are described to broaden implementation of MRI in clinical practice in TBI: 1) development of a standardized multimodal MRI protocol; 2) future directions for the use of advanced MRI analyses; 3) use of low-field MRI to overcome technical/practical issues with high-field MRI.

Regionally specific resting-state beta neural power predicts brain injury and symptom recovery in adolescents with concussion: a longitudinal study

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is common in adolescents. Magnetoencephalography (MEG) studies (primarily reporting on adult males) have demonstrated abnormal resting-state (RS) brain activity in mTBI. The present study sought to identify RS abnormalities in male and female adolescents with mTBI (no previous mTBI and no previous DSM-5 diagnosis) identified from an outpatient specialty care concussion program setting as a basis for evaluating potential clinical utility. Visit 1 MEG RS data were obtained from 46 adolescents with mTBI (mean age: 15.4 years, 25 females) within 4 months of a mTBI (mTBI acute to sub-acute period) as well as from 34 typically developing (TD) controls (mean age: 14.8 years; 17 females) identified from the local community. Visit 2 RS data (follow-up ∼4.3 months after Visit 1; mTBI sub-chronic period) were obtained from 36 mTBI (19 females) and 29 TD (14 females) of those participants. Source-space RS neural activity was examined from 4 to 56 Hz. Visit 1 t-tests showed that group differences were largest in the beta range (16-30 Hz; mTBI < TD), with Visit 2 whole-brain linear mixed model (LMM) analyses examining beta-band group differences as a function of Visit. A main effect of Group indicated Visit 1 and 2 beta-band group differences in midline superior frontal gyrus, right temporal pole, and right central sulcus (all mTBI < TD). The group effects were large (Cohen's d values 0.75 to 1.31). Of clinical significance in the mTBI group, a decrease in mTBI symptoms from Visit 1 to 2 was associated with an increase in beta power in 4 other brain regions. Present findings suggest that RS beta power has potential as a measure and perhaps as a mechanism of clinical recovery in adolescents with mTBI.

Predictive Utility of Diffusion MRI After Mild Traumatic Brain Injury in Civilian Populations: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVE

A considerable number of people experience persisting symptoms and functional limitations after mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). It is unclear whether subtle white matter changes contribute to this phenomenon. In this systematic review, the authors evaluated whether microstructural white matter indices on advanced MRI are related to clinical dysfunction among patients without abnormalities on standard brain computed tomography (CT) or MRI (uncomplicated mTBI).

METHODS

A search of multiple databases was performed. Studies with individuals who experienced blast-related, sports-related, or multiple mTBIs were excluded. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and susceptibility-weighted imaging (SWI) metrics and cognitive, neuropsychiatric, or functional outcome measures were extracted from each study.

RESULTS

Thirteen studies were selected (participants with mTBI, N=553; healthy control group, N=438). Seven DTI studies evaluated cognitive function, with five reporting significant correlations between reduced white matter integrity and deficits in attention, processing speed, and executive function at 6-12 months after injury (three studies included only individuals with uncomplicated mTBI). Four studies found significant correlations between DTI metrics and persistent postconcussive symptoms after 3-12 months (one study included only individuals with uncomplicated mTBI). Two SWI studies reported conflicting findings regarding the relationship between the presence of microbleeds and postconcussive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

The results revealed that indices of microstructural white matter integrity may relate to clinical presentation 3-12 months after injury in uncomplicated mTBI. However, analysis methods and brain regions studied varied across studies. Further research is needed to identify relationships between white matter indices in specific brain regions and symptom persistence beyond 12 months.

Current State of Diffusion-Weighted Imaging and Diffusion Tensor Imaging for Traumatic Brain Injury Prognostication

Advanced imaging techniques are needed to assist in providing a prognosis for patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI), particularly mild TBI (mTBI). Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) is one promising advanced imaging technique, but has shown variable results in patients with TBI and is not without limitations, especially when considering individual patients. Efforts to resolve these limitations are being explored and include developing advanced diffusion techniques, creating a normative database, improving study design, and testing machine learning algorithms. This article will review the fundamentals of DTI, providing an overview of the current state of its utility in evaluating and providing prognosis in patients with TBI.

A fixel-based analysis of micro- and macro-structural changes to white matter following adult traumatic brain injury

Diffusion tensor imaging is often used to assess white matter (WM) changes following traumatic brain injury (TBI), but is limited in voxels that contain multiple fibre tracts. Fixel-based analysis (FBA) addresses this limitation by using a novel method of analysing high angular resolution diffusion-weighted imaging (HARDI) data. FBA examines three aspects of each fibre tract within a voxel: tissue micro-structure (fibre density [FD]), tissue macro-structure (fibre-bundle cross section [FC]) and a combined measure of both (FD and fibre-bundle cross section [FDC]). This study used FBA to identify the location and extent of micro- and macro-structural changes in WM following TBI. A large TBI sample (Nmild = 133, Nmoderate-severe = 29) and control group (healthy and orthopaedic; N = 107) underwent magnetic resonance imaging with HARDI and completed reaction time tasks approximately 7 months after their injury (range: 98-338 days). The TBI group showed micro-structural differences (lower FD) in the corpus callosum and forceps minor, compared to controls. Subgroup analyses revealed that the mild TBI group did not differ from controls on any fixel metric, but the moderate to severe TBI group had significantly lower FD, FC and FDC in multiple WM tracts, including the corpus callosum, cerebral peduncle, internal and external capsule. The moderate to severe TBI group also had significantly slower reaction times than controls, but the mild TBI group did not. Reaction time was not related to fixel findings. Thus, the WM damage caused by moderate to severe TBI manifested as fewer axons and a reduction in the cross-sectional area of key WM tracts.

MRI-based measures of intracortical myelin are sensitive to a history of TBI and are associated with functional connectivity

Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) induce persistent behavioral and cognitive deficits via diffuse axonal injury. Axonal injuries are often examined in vivo using diffusion MRI, which identifies damaged and demyelinated regions in deep white matter. However, TBI patients can exhibit impairment in the absence of diffusion-measured abnormalities, suggesting that axonal injury and demyelination may occur outside the deep white matter. Importantly, myelinated axons are also present within the cortex. Cortical myelination cannot be measured using diffusion imaging, but can be mapped in-vivo using the T1-w/T2-w ratio method. Here, we conducted the first work examining effects of TBI on intracortical myelin in living humans by applying myelin mapping to 46 US Military Veterans with a history of TBI. We observed that myelin maps could be created in TBI patients that matched known distributions of cortical myelin. After controlling for age and presence of blast injury, the number of lifetime TBIs was associated with reductions in the T1-w/T2-w ratio across the cortex, most significantly in a highly-myelinated lateral occipital region corresponding with the human MT+ complex. Further, the T1-w/T2-w ratio in this MT+ region predicted resting-state functional connectivity of that region. By contrast, a history of blast TBI did not affect the T1-w/T2-w ratio in either a diffuse or focal pattern. These findings suggest that intracortical myelin, as measured using the T1-w/T2-w ratio, may be a TBI biomarker that is anatomically complementary to diffusion MRI. Thus, myelin mapping could potentially be combined with diffusion imaging to improve MRI-based diagnostic tools for TBI.

Animal models of closed-skull, repetitive mild traumatic brain injury

The underlying mechanisms that result in neurophysiological changes and cognitive sequelae in the context of repetitive mild traumatic brain injury (rmTBI) remain poorly understood. Animal models provide a unique opportunity to examine cellular and molecular responses using histological assessment, which can give important insights on the neurophysiological changes associated with the evolution of brain injury. To better understand the potential cumulative effects of multiple concussions, the focus of animal models is shifting from single to repetitive head impacts. With a growing body of literature on this subject, a review and discussion of current findings is valuable to better understand the neuropathology associated with rmTBI, to evaluate the current state of the field, and to guide future research efforts. Despite variability in experimental settings, existing animal models of rmTBI have contributed to our understanding of the underlying mechanisms following repeat concussion. However, how to reconcile the various impact methods remains one of the major challenges in the field today.

Diffusion tensor imaging changes following mild, moderate and severe adult traumatic brain injury: a meta-analysis

Diffusion tensor imaging quantifies the asymmetry (fractional anisotropy; FA) and amount of water diffusion (mean diffusivity/apparent diffusion coefficient; MD/ADC) and has been used to assess white matter damage following traumatic brain injury (TBI). In healthy brains, diffusion is constrained by the organization of axons, resulting in high FA and low MD/ADC. Following a TBI, diffusion may be altered; however the exact nature of these changes has yet to be determined. A meta-analysis was therefore conducted to determine the location and extent of changes in DTI following adult TBI. The data from 44 studies that compared the FA and/or MD/ADC data from TBI and Control participants in different regions of interest (ROIs) were analyzed. The impact of injury severity, post-injury interval (acute: ≤ 1 week, subacute: 1 week-3 months, chronic: > 3 months), scanner details and acquisition parameters were investigated in subgroup analyses, with the findings indicating that mild TBI should be examined separately to that of moderate to severe injuries. Lower FA values were found in 88% of brain regions following mild TBI and 92% following moderate-severe TBI, compared to Controls. MD/ADC was higher in 95% and 100% of brain regions following mild and moderate-severe TBI, respectively. Moderate to severe TBI resulted in larger changes in FA and MD/ADC than mild TBI. Overall, changes to FA and MD/ADC were widespread, reflecting more symmetric and a higher amount of diffusion, indicative of white matter damage.

Current Clinical Applications of Diffusion-Tensor Imaging in Neurological Disorders

Diffusion-tensor imaging (DTI) is a noninvasive medical imaging tool used to investigate the structure of white matter. The signal contrast in DTI is generated by differences in the Brownian motion of the water molecules in brain tissue. Postprocessed DTI scalars can be used to evaluate changes in the brain tissue caused by disease, disease progression, and treatment responses, which has led to an enormous amount of interest in DTI in clinical research. This review article provides insights into DTI scalars and the biological background of DTI as a relatively new neuroimaging modality. Further, it summarizes the clinical role of DTI in various disease processes such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's dementia, epilepsy, ischemic stroke, stroke with motor or language impairment, traumatic brain injury, spinal cord injury, and depression. Valuable DTI postprocessing tools for clinical research are also introduced.

Common Patterns of Regional Brain Injury Detectable by Diffusion Tensor Imaging in Otherwise Normal-Appearing White Matter in Patients with Early Moderate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) alters the lives of millions of people every year. Although mortality rates have improved, attributed to better pre-hospital care and reduction of secondary injury in the critical care setting, improvements in functional outcomes post-TBI have been difficult to achieve. Diffusion-tensor imaging (DTI) allows detailed measurement of microstructural damage in regional brain tissue post-TBI, thus improving our understanding of the extent and severity of TBI. Twenty subjects were recruited from a neurological intensive care unit and compared to 18 healthy control subjects. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanning was performed on a 3.0-Tesla Siemens TIM Trio Scanner (Siemens Medical Solutions, Erlangen, Germany) including T1- and T2-weighted sequences and DTI. Images were processed using DTIStudio software. SAS (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC) was used for statistical analysis of group differences in 14 brain regions (25 regions of interests [ROIs]). Seventeen TBI subjects completed scanning. TBI and control subjects did not differ in age or sex. All TBI subjects had visible lesions on structural MRI. TBI subjects had seven brain regions (nine ROIs) that showed significant group differences on DTI metrics (fractional anisotropy, radial diffusion, or mean diffusion) compared to noninjured subjects, including the corpus callosum (genu and splenium), superior longitudinal fasciculus, internal capsule, right retrolenticular internal capsule, posterior corona radiata, and thalamus. However, 16 ROIs showed relatively normal DTI measures. Quantitative DTI demonstrates multiple areas of microstructual injury in specific normal-appearing white matter brain regions. DTI may be useful for assessing the extent of brain injury in patients with early moderate to severe TBI.

Neuroplastic Changes Induced by Cognitive Rehabilitation in Traumatic Brain Injury: A Review

Background. Cognitive deficits are among the most disabling consequences of traumatic brain injury (TBI), leading to long-term outcomes and interfering with the individual’s recovery. One of the most effective ways to reduce the impact of cognitive disturbance in everyday life is cognitive rehabilitation, which is based on the principles of brain neuroplasticity and restoration. Although there are many studies in the literature focusing on the effectiveness of cognitive interventions in reducing cognitive deficits following TBI, only a few of them focus on neural modifications induced by cognitive treatment. The use of neuroimaging or neurophysiological measures to evaluate brain changes induced by cognitive rehabilitation may have relevant clinical implications, since they could add individualized elements to cognitive assessment. Nevertheless, there are no review studies in the literature investigating neuroplastic changes induced by cognitive training in TBI individuals. Objective. Due to lack of data, the goal of this article is to review what is currently known on the cerebral modifications following rehabilitation programs in chronic TBI. Methods. Studies investigating both the functional and structural neural modifications induced by cognitive training in TBI subjects were identified from the results of database searches. Forty-five published articles were initially selected. Of these, 34 were excluded because they did not meet the inclusion criteria. Results. Eleven studies were found that focused solely on the functional and neurophysiological changes induced by cognitive rehabilitation. Conclusions. Outcomes showed that cerebral activation may be significantly modified by cognitive rehabilitation, in spite of the severity of the injury.

White matter changes in patients with mild traumatic brain injury: MRI perspective

This review focuses on white matter (WM) changes in mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) as assessed by multimodal MRI. All the peer reviewed publications on WM changes in mTBI from January 2011 through September 2016 are included in this review. This review is organized as follows: introduction to mTBI, the basics of multimodal MRI techniques that are potentially useful for probing the WM integrity, summary and critical evaluation of the published literature on the application of multimodal MRI techniques to assess the changes of WM in mTBI, and correlation of MRI measures with behavioral deficits. The MRI-pathology correlation studies based on preclinical models of mTBI are also reviewed. Finally, the author's perspective of future research directions is described.

Diffusion Tensor Imaging Findings in Post-Concussion Syndrome Patients after Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: A Systematic Review

Objectives

To review the evidence for the use of diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) parameters in the human brain as a diagnostic tool for and predictor of post-concussion syndrome (PCS) after a mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI).

Design

Systematic review.

Data sources

All relevant studies in AMED, Embase, MEDLINE, Ovid, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science through 20 May, 2016.

Study selection

Studies that analyze traditional DTI measures [fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), radial diffusivity (RD), and axial diffusivity (AD)] and the severity of PCS symptoms or the development of PCS in humans after an mTBI.

Data extraction

Population studied, patient source, mTBI diagnosis method, PCS diagnosis method, DTI values measured, significant findings, and correlation between DTI findings and PCS.

Data synthesis

Ten studies investigated correlations between DTI values and PCS symptom severity or between DTI values and the development of PCS in mTBI patients. Decreased FA and increased MD and RD were associated with the development and severity of PCS. AD was not found to change significantly. Brain regions found to have significant changes in DTI parameters varied from study to study, although the corpus callosum was most frequently cited as having abnormal DTI parameters in PCS patients.

Conclusion

DTI abnormalities correlate with PCS incidence and symptom severity, as well as indicate an increased risk of developing PCS after mTBI. Abnormal DTI findings should prompt investigation of the syndrome to ensure optimal symptom management at the earliest stages. Currently, there is no consensus in the literature about the use of one DTI parameter in a specific region of the brain as a biomarker for PCS because no definite trends for DTI parameters in PCS subjects have been identified. Further research is required to establish a standard biomarker for PCS.