Esophageal Morbidity and Function in Adults With Repaired Esophageal Atresia With Tracheoesophageal Fistula: A Population-Based Long-term Follow-up

Distinct and reproducible esophageal motility patterns in children with esophageal atresia

OBJECTIVES

Esophageal atresia (EA) is a significant congenital anomaly, with most survivors experiencing esophageal dysmotility. Currently, there is no reliable way to predict which patients will develop significant, life-threatening dysmotility. Using high-resolution impedance manometry (HRIM), this study aimed to characterize the common pressure topography patterns in children with repaired EA.

METHODS

This prospective longitudinal cohort study focused on children (<18 years) with repaired EA. Utilizing HRIM, esophageal motility patterns were studied. Repeat manometric assessments were performed in a selected group.

RESULTS

Seventy-five patients with EA (M:F = 43:32, median age 15 months [3 months to 17 years]) completed 133 HRIM studies. The majority (54 out of 75, 85.3%) had EA with distal tracheo-esophageal fistula. Thirty-five out of 75 (46.7%) underwent one study, 24 out of 75 (32.0%) two studies, 14 out of 75 (18.7%) three studies, and 2 out of 75 (2.7%) four studies. Seventy-two patients had analyzable studies. Three common motility patterns were demonstrated: (1) aperistalsis (26 out of 72, 36.1%); (2) distal esophageal contraction (25 out of 72, 34.7%); and (3) pressurization (6 out of 72, 8.3%). A minority demonstrated combination patterns, including aperistalsis with weak distal contraction (10 out of 72, 13.9%) and aperistalsis with pressurization (2 out of 72, 2.8%). Contraction was normal in 3 out of 72 (4.2%). At repeat assessment, the dominant motility pattern persisted in 26 out of 38 (68.4%) of the second studies and 9 out of 15 (60.0%) of the third studies.

CONCLUSION

Utilizing HRIM in children with repaired EA, we have demonstrated objective, distinct, and reproducible motility patterns. In this cohort, the majority of motility patterns were maintained longitudinally, and dysphagia scores remained unchanged, even after dilatation.

Preservation of the azygos vein versus ligation of the azygos vein during primary surgical repair of congenital esophageal atresia

BACKGROUND

Esophageal atresia is one of the most common life-threatening congenital malformations and is defined as an interruption in the continuity of the esophagus with or without fistula to the trachea or bronchi. Definitive treatment is surgical ligation of the fistula if present and esophageal end-to-end anastomosis of the two pouches, thereby reconstructing the continuity of the esophagus. During this procedure, the surgeon may choose to either ligate or preserve the azygos vein, a major draining vein for the esophagus and surrounding structures, but no definitive consensus on the matter exists.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the benefits and harms of preservation of the azygos vein versus ligation of the azygos vein during primary surgical repair of congenital esophageal atresia.

SEARCH METHODS

We identified trials from the Cochrane Gut Specialized Register, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) via Ovid Evidence-Based Medicine Reviews Database (EBMR), MEDLINE, Embase, and CINAHL (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature). We also conducted a search of ClinicalTrials.gov, LILACS, Science Citation Index Expanded and Conference Proceedings Citation Index - Science (Web of Science), and the World Health Organization (WHO) International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP). We searched all databases from their inception to 22 May 2024, with no restriction on language of publication.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomized clinical trials (RCTs) assessing preservation of the azygos vein versus ligation of the azygos vein during primary surgical repair of congenital esophageal atresia in infants less than three months of age.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Pairs of two review authors independently screened titles and abstracts, screened relevant full-text reports, and identified RCTs for inclusion. We recorded the selection process in a PRISMA flow diagram. We assessed the risk of bias of the included studies (using RoB 2) and the certainty of the evidence (using the GRADE approach) according to the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. We contacted the study authors if data were missing or unclear.

MAIN RESULTS

Six trials met the inclusion criteria, including 390 participants in total. We were able to assess all our primary outcomes: all-cause mortality, serious adverse events, and anastomosis leakage, as well as two of our three secondary outcomes: sepsis or mediastinitis and esophageal stricture. However, none of the six trials assessed recurrent tracheoesophageal fistula. All trials had either some concerns or high risk of bias, and the certainty of the evidence for all outcomes was either low or very low. Meta-analyses showed that preservation of the azygos vein may result in a large reduction in mortality (risk ratio (RR) 0.44, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.26 to 0.73; low-certainty evidence), serious adverse events (RR 0.33, 95% CI 0.21 to 0.50; very low-certainty evidence), and anastomosis leakage (RR 0.44, 95% CI 0.26 to 0.76; low-certainty evidence) when compared to ligation of the azygos vein in neonates undergoing primary surgical repair of congenital esophageal atresia. Meta-analysis of our secondary outcomes showed that preservation of the azygos vein may result in a large reduction in mediastinitis or sepsis (RR 0.34, 95% CI 0.21 to 0.53; very low-certainty evidence). Esophageal stricture was only reported in two studies with 114 participants. The effects on esophageal stricture were unclear (RR 0.75, 96% CI 0.35 to 1.63; very low-certainty evidence), but the evidence is very uncertain.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Current evidence suggests that preserving the azygos vein during primary surgical repair for esophageal atresia may result in large reductions in overall mortality, serious adverse events, anastomosis leakage, and sepsis or mediastinitis. No included data suggested that routine ligation of the azygos vein was beneficial. However, all the evidence was of low to very low certainty. Further research is still warranted as the results of this review may not be applicable to all newborns with congenital esophageal atresia.

A novel piglet model of esophageal stricture following variable segmental esophageal resection and re-anastomosis

BACKGROUND

Esophageal strictures following esophageal atresia repair are a source of significant morbidity. To test new therapeutic approaches, we designed a piglet model of esophageal stricture by resecting variable lengths of esophagus with subsequent re-anastomosis. This study describes the model and validates its physiologic impact by blinded analysis of the weight gains of the piglets.

METHODS

A total of 24 two-week old Pietrain piglets had esophageal resections performed, ranging from 0 to 5 cm, with the goal of inducing postoperative esophageal strictures. Postoperative body-weights were evaluated by repeated analysis of variance followed by pairwise group-comparisons based on estimated marginal means. In addition, body weight was modeled by linear-mixed model regression. Different resection lengths were compared. The esophagi were evaluated postmortem for stricture.

RESULTS

Of 24 operated piglets, 23 reached the endpoint, and 90% developed an esophageal stricture that was radiologically visible in a contrast study, as well as appreciable macroscopically in the necropsy. We found differences in pre- and postoperative body weights for all piglets (F (1, 18) = 298.54, p < 0.001), but no differences between resection lengths (F (4, 18) = 0.36, p = 0.837).

CONCLUSION

Our model of postoperative esophageal stricture offers the opportunity to investigate potential treatments for strictures associated with esophageal atresia, since it reliably induces strictures and results in minimal loss of animals. The similar body weight gain in all groups indicates that stricture is mainly the result of esophageal resection and re-anastomosis, regardless of the length of the resected segment.

Surveillance Endoscopy in Pediatric Esophageal Atresia: Toward an Evidence-Based Algorithm

BACKGROUND

Individuals with esophageal atresia (EA) have lifelong increased risk for mucosal and structural pathology of the esophagus. The use of surveillance endoscopy to detect clinically meaningful pathology has been underexplored in pediatric EA. We hypothesized that surveillance endoscopy in pediatric EA has high clinical yield, even in the absence of symptoms.

STUDY DESIGN

The medical records of all patients with EA who underwent at least 1 surveillance endoscopy between March 2004 and March 2023 at an international EA referral center were retrospectively reviewed. The primary outcomes were endoscopic identification of pathology leading to an escalation in medical, endoscopic, or surgical management. Logistic regression analysis examined predictors of actionable findings. Nelson-Aalen analysis estimated optimal endoscopic surveillance intervals.

RESULTS

Five hundred forty-six children with EA underwent 1,473 surveillance endoscopies spanning 3,687 person-years of follow-up time. A total of 770 endoscopies (52.2%) in 394 unique patients (72.2%) had actionable pathology. Esophagitis leading to escalation of therapy was the most frequently encountered finding (484 endoscopies, 32.9%), with most esophagitis attributed to acid reflux. Barrett's esophagus (intestinal metaplasia) was identified in 7 unique patients (1.3%) at a median age of 11.3 years. No dysplastic lesions were identified. Actionable findings leading to surgical intervention were found in 55 children (30 refractory reflux and 25 tracheoesophageal fistulas). Significant predictors of actionable pathology included increasing age, long gap atresia, and hiatal hernia. Symptoms were not predictive of actionable findings, except dysphagia, which was associated with stricture. Nelson-Aalen analysis predicted occurrence of an actionable finding every 5 years.

CONCLUSIONS

Surveillance endoscopy uncovers high rates of actionable pathology even in asymptomatic children with EA. Based on the findings of the current study, a pediatric EA surveillance endoscopy algorithm is proposed.

Proton pump inhibitors in esophageal atresia: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is frequent and prolonged in esophageal atresia (EA) pediatric patients requiring routine use of proton pump inhibitors (PPIs). However, there are still controversies on the prophylactic use of PPIs and the efficacy of PPIs on GERD and EA complications in this special condition. The aim of the study is to assess the prophylactic use of PPIs in pediatric patients with EA and its complications. We, therefore, performed a systematic review including all reports on the subject from 1980 to 2022. We conducted meta-analysis of the pooled proportion of PPI-and no PPI groups using random effect model, meta-regression, and estimate heterogeneity by heterogeneity index I2 . Thirty-eight reports on the topic met the criteria selection, representing a cumulative 6044 patients with EA. Prophylactic PPI prescription during the first year of life does not appear to prevent GERD persistence at follow-up and is not associated with a significantly reduced rate of antireflux surgical procedures (ARP). PPIs improve peptic esophagitis and induce remission of eosinophilic esophagitis at a rate of 50%. Their effect on other GERD outcomes is uncertain. Evidence suggests that PPIs do not prevent anastomotic stricture, Barrett's esophagus, or respiratory complications. PPI use in EA can improve peptic and eosinophilic esophagitis but is ineffective on the other EA complications. Side effects of PPIs in EA are almost unknown.

The International Network on Oesophageal Atresia (INoEA) consensus guidelines on the transition of patients with oesophageal atresia-tracheoesophageal fistula

Oesophageal atresia-tracheoesophageal fistula (EA-TEF) is a common congenital digestive disease. Patients with EA-TEF face gastrointestinal, surgical, respiratory, otolaryngological, nutritional, psychological and quality of life issues in childhood, adolescence and adulthood. Although consensus guidelines exist for the management of gastrointestinal, nutritional, surgical and respiratory problems in childhood, a systematic approach to the care of these patients in adolescence, during transition to adulthood and in adulthood is currently lacking. The Transition Working Group of the International Network on Oesophageal Atresia (INoEA) was charged with the task of developing uniform evidence-based guidelines for the management of complications through the transition from adolescence into adulthood. Forty-two questions addressing the diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of gastrointestinal, surgical, respiratory, otolaryngological, nutritional, psychological and quality of life complications that patients with EA-TEF face during adolescence and after the transition to adulthood were formulated. A systematic literature search was performed based on which recommendations were made. All recommendations were discussed and finalized during consensus meetings, and the group members voted on each recommendation. Expert opinion was used when no randomized controlled trials were available to support the recommendation. The list of the 42 statements, all based on expert opinion, was voted on and agreed upon.

Clinical outcome, quality of life, and mental health in long-gap esophageal atresia: comparison of gastric sleeve pull-up and delayed primary anastomosis

INTRODUCTION

Pediatric surgeons have yet to reach a consensus whether a gastric sleeve pull-up or delayed primary anastomosis for the treatment of esophageal atresia (EA), especially of the long-gap type (LGEA) should be performed. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate clinical outcome, quality of life (QoL), and mental health of patients with EA and their parents.

METHODS

Clinical outcomes of all children treated with EA from 2007 to 2021 were collected and parents of affected children were asked to participate in questionnaires regarding their Quality of Life (QoL) and their child's Health-Related Quality of Life (HRQoL), as well as mental health.

RESULTS

A total of 98 EA patients were included in the study. For analysis, the cohort was divided into two groups: (1) primary versus (2) secondary anastomosis, while the secondary anastomosis group was subdivided into (a) delayed primary anastomosis and (b) gastric sleeve pull-up and compared with each other. When comparing the secondary anastomosis group, significant differences were found between the delayed primary anastomosis and gastric sleeve pull-up group; the duration of anesthesia during anastomosis surgery (478.54 vs 328.82 min, p < 0.001), endoscopic dilatation rate (100% vs 69%, p = 0.03), cumulative time spent in intensive care (42.31 vs 94.75 days, p = 0.03) and the mortality rate (0% vs 31%, p = 0.03). HRQoL and mental health did not differ between any of the groups.

CONCLUSION

Delayed primary anastomosis or gastric sleeve pull-up appear to be similar in patients with long-gap esophageal atresia in many key aspects like leakage rate, strictures, re-fistula, tracheomalacia, recurrent infections, thrive or reflux. Moreover, HrQoL was comparable in patients with (a) gastric sleeve pull-up and (b) delayed primary anastomosis. Future studies should focus on the long-term results of either preservation or replacement of the esophagus in children.

Endoscopic Management of Congenital Esophageal Defects and Associated Comorbidities

The endoscopist plays a critical role in the management of patients with congenital esophageal defects. This review focuses on esophageal atresia and congenital esophageal strictures and, in particular, the endoscopic management of comorbidities related to these conditions, including anastomotic strictures, tracheoesophageal fistulas, esophageal perforations, and esophagitis surveillance. Practical aspects of endoscopic techniques for stricture management are reviewed including dilation, intralesional steroid injection, stenting, and endoscopic incisional therapy. Endoscopic surveillance for mucosal pathology is essential in this population, as patients are at high risk of esophagitis and its late complications such as Barrett's esophagus.

Predictors of enteral tube dependence in pediatric esophageal atresia

Children with esophageal atresia (EA) may require enteral tube feedings in infancy and a subset experience ongoing feeding difficulties and enteral tube dependence. Predictors of enteral tube dependence have never been systematically explored in this population. We hypothesized that enteral tube dependence is multifactorial in nature, with likely important contributions from anastomotic stricture. Cross-sectional clinical, feeding, and endoscopic data were extracted from a prospectively collected database of endoscopies performed in EA patients between August 2019 and August 2021 at an international referral center for EA management. Clinical factors known or hypothesized to contribute to esophageal dysphagia, oropharyngeal dysphagia, or other difficulties in meeting caloric needs were incorporated into regression models for statistical analysis. Significant predictors of enteral tube dependence were statistically identified. Three-hundred thirty children with EA were eligible for analysis. Ninety-seven were dependent on enteral tube feeds. Younger age, lower weight Z scores, long gap atresia, neurodevelopmental risk factor(s), significant cardiac disease, vocal fold movement impairment, and smaller esophageal anastomotic diameter were significantly associated with enteral tube dependence in univariate analyses; only weight Z scores, vocal fold movement impairment, and anastomotic diameter retained significance in a multivariable logistic regression model. In the current study, anastomotic stricture is the only potentially modifiable significant predictor of enteral tube dependence that is identified.

Distal Recurrent Tracheoesophageal Fistula after Repair of Esophageal Atresia-Incidence, Risk Factors, and Outcome

OBJECTIVE

 The aim of this study was to assess incidence, risk factors, and outcomes of distal recurrent tracheoesophageal fistula (RTEF) after repair of esophageal atresia (EA).

METHODS

 Ethical consent was obtained. Data collection was done by review of hospital records of 286 patients (268 in-house and 18 referred) who underwent repair of type C or D EA from 1980 to 2021. Spitz class, long-gap (tracheoesophageal fistula at carina), fundoplication, leakage, and stricture were assessed as RTEF risk factors. Outcome measures were long-term closure of RTEF, retainment of native esophagus, and survival.

RESULTS

 RTEF occurred in 23 patients (19 in-house) with type C (n = 22) or type D (n = 1) EA with median 4.4 (interquartile range [IQR]: 1.7-13) months after repair. Five patients had late RTEF 3.5 to 16 years after repair. Nineteen (7.3%) in-house patients developed RTEF. Presenting symptoms, age at diagnosis, and presence of anastomotic stricture (AS) are listed. No statistically significant risk factors were found, risk ratio of 0.5 to 2.7 (IQR: 0.1-8.7), p-value of 0.25 to 0.75. Detached closure clip and esophageal foreign body contributed to RTEF in two patients. Sixteen patients underwent rethoracotomy for closure of RTEF, 5 (22%) with AS eventually underwent esophageal reconstruction after a period with cervical esophagostomy. Two patients with late-manifested RTEFs underwent closure with laser cauterization. In 22 patients, treatment of RTEF succeeded, whereas 1 (4%) premature patient died of instant re-RTEF.

CONCLUSION

 RTEF had an incidence of 7% with diverse patterns of manifestation and predicting factors. Closure rate and patient survival were excellent, but RTEF with AS predicted loss of native esophagus.

Management of Adults With Esophageal Atresia

Esophageal atresia (EA) with or without trachea-esophageal fistula is relatively common congenital malformation with most patients living into adulthood. As a result, care of the adult patient with EA is becoming more common. Although surgical repair has changed EA from a fatal to a livable condition, the residual effects of the anomaly may lead to a lifetime of complications. These include effects related to the underlying deformity such as atonicity of the esophageal segment, fistula recurrence, and esophageal cancer to complications of the surgery including anastomotic stricture, gastroesophageal reflux, and coping with an organ transposition. This review discusses the occurrence and management of these conditions in adulthood and the role of an effective transition from pediatric to adult care to optimize adult care treatment.

Preexisting neural factors that contribute to dysmotility in esophageal atresia: a systematic review

Esophageal dysmotility in esophageal atresia (EA) relates to abnormal development of esophageal innervation and musculature and to the esophageal repair. Few studies have investigated the preexisting dysmotility in EA, present prior to surgery. This systematic review aims to summarize the literature on neuronal studies in EA, to understand the causative factors for esophageal dysmotility. We performed a systematic review (PubMed, EMBASE, EBM, CINAHL databases; January 1947-February 2021) in accordance with PRISMA (PROSPERO number CRD42020171014). Fourteen studies were identified (eleven human, 187 EA patients; three animal, 64 EA rat specimens). Neural factors affecting esophageal dysmotility in human and animal studies included proteins, enzymes, growth factors, and genes, which play a role in the nervous system or neuroendocrine system, some of which have functions as neuromodulators or neurotransmitters. This systematic review has identified neural factors that affect esophageal dysmotility and contributes toward our understanding of the underlying dysmotility in patients with EA. The studies identified are important and essential for successful translation of basic science knowledge to impact clinical practice and understanding. Level of evidence: III.

Development and validation of a condition-specific quality of life instrument for adults with esophageal atresia: the SQEA questionnaire

The importance of multidisciplinary long-term follow-up for adults born with esophageal atresia (EA) is increasingly recognized. Hence, a valid, condition-specific instrument to measure health-related quality of life (HRQoL) becomes imperative. This study aimed to develop and validate such an instrument for adults with EA. The Specific Quality of life in Esophageal atresia Adults (SQEA) questionnaire was developed through focus group-based item generation, pilot testing, item reduction and a multicenter, nationwide field test to evaluate the feasibility, reliability (internal and retest) and validity (structural, construct, criterion and convergent), in compliance with the consensus-based standards for the selection of health measurement instruments guidelines. After pilot testing (n = 42), items were reduced from 144 to 36 questions. After field testing (n = 447), three items were discarded based on item-response theory results. The final SQEA questionnaire (33 items) forms a unidimensional scale generating an unweighted total score. Feasibility, internal reliability (Cronbach's alpha 0.94) and test-retest agreement (intra-class coefficient 0.92) were good. Construct validity was discriminative for esophageal replacement (P < 0.001), dysphagia (P < 0.001) and airway obstruction (P = 0.029). Criterion validity showed a good correlation with dysphagia (area under the receiver operating characteristic 0.736). SQEA scores correlated well with other validated disease-specific HRQoL scales such as the GIQLI and SGRQ, but poorly with the more generic RAND-36. Overall, this first condition-specific instrument for EA adults showed satisfactory feasibility, reliability and validity. Additionally, it shows discriminative ability to detect disease burden. Therefore, the SQEA questionnaire is both a valid instrument to assess the HRQoL in EA adults and an interesting signaling tool, enabling clinicians to recognize more severely affected patients.

Long-term outcomes in newborn surgery

This article describes the common methods to study long-term outcomes in patients who have undergone major surgery in newborn period. It also sums up today's knowledge on the long-term outcome of some classic newborn surgical conditions. The analysis of long-term outcomes is important to pediatric surgeons. Knowledge of long-term outcome can guide the patient's management and principles of the follow-up throughout the patient's childhood. It also aims to give the parents of the patient a realistic picture on the development of their child. Recent data have shown that many patients who have undergone major surgery during early childhood have significant functional aberrations at adult age. Some of these have a profound influence on the quality of life of these patients.

Clinical variables as indicative factors for endoscopy in adolescents with esophageal atresia

INTRODUCTION

Gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD) occurs frequently in patients operated for esophageal atresia (EA). Longstanding esophagitis may lead to dysphagia, strictures, columnar metaplasia, and dysplasia with an increased risk of adenocarcinoma. Are clinical factors and non-invasive assessments reliable indicators for follow-up with endoscopy?

MATERIAL AND METHOD

A follow-up study with inclusion of EA adolescents in Norway born between 1996 and 2002 was conducted. Clinical assessment with pH monitoring, endoscopy with biopsies, along with interviews and questionnaires regarding gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and dysphagia were performed.

RESULTS

We examined 68 EA adolescents. 62% reported GERD by interview, 22% by questionnaire. 85% reported dysphagia by interview, 71% by questionnaire. 24-hour pH monitoring detected pathological reflux index (RI) (>7%) in 7/59 (12%). By endoscopy with biopsy 62 (92%) had histologic esophagitis, of whom 3 (4%) had severe esophagitis. Gastric metaplasia was diagnosed in twelve (18%) adolescents, intestinal metaplasia in only one (1.5%). None had dysplasia or carcinoma. Dysphagia and GERD were statistically correlated to esophagitis and metaplasia, but none of the questionnaires or interviews alone were good screening instruments with high combined sensitivity and specificity. A compound variable made by simply taking the mean of rescaled RI and dysphagia by interview showed to be the best predictor of metaplasia (85% sensitivity, 67% specificity).

CONCLUSION

The questionnaires and interviews used in the present study were not good screening instruments alone. However, combining dysphagia score by interview and RI may be helpful in assessing which patients need endoscopy with biopsy at each individual follow-up examination.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level II prognostic study.

Long-Term Outcomes and Health-Related Quality of Life in a Swiss Patient Group with Esophageal Atresia

INTRODUCTION

 Surgical treatment of esophageal atresia (EA) has markedly improved, allowing the focus to shift from short-term complications and mortality to long-term complications and quality of life. Health-related quality of life (HRQoL) is variable and reported to range from reduced to unimpaired in patients with repaired EA. We assessed the HRQoL, determined the prevalence of long-term complications and their possible impact on the HRQoL in patients who had correction of EA in Switzerland. Further, we also investigated in the general well-being of their parents.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

 Patients with EA repair in Switzerland between 1985 and 2011 were enrolled. Long-term complications were assessed by enquiring disease-related symptoms, standardized clinical examinations, and analysis of radiographs. HRQoL was inquired using different validated questionnaires (KIDSCREEN-27, World Health Organization [WHO]-5, and Gastrointestinal Quality of Life Index [GIQLI]). Patients were grouped according to their age. In underage patients, general well-being of the parents was assessed using the WHO-5 questionnaire.

RESULTS

 Thirty patients were included with a mean age of 11.3 ± 5.7 years. Long-term complications were present in 63% of all patients. HRQoL in underage patients was comparable to the provided reference values and rated as good, while adult patients reported a reduced HRQoL. The presence of gastroesophageal reflux disease symptoms was associated with reduced HRQoL in underage patients. Parents of underage patients stated a good general well-being.

CONCLUSION

 Long-term complications among patients with repair of EA in Switzerland are common. HRQoL in underage patients is good and general well-being of their parents is unimpaired. Adult patients reported a reduced HRQoL, consistent with other reports. As long-term complications may manifest only later in life, a structured follow-up of patients with an EA repair during childhood and adolescence is needed.

Recommendations for endoscopic surveillance after esophageal atresia repair in adults

BACKGROUND

Endoscopic surveillance of adults with esophageal atresia is advocated, but the optimal surveillance strategy remains uncertain. This study aimed to provide recommendations on appropriate starting age and intervals of endoscopic surveillance in adults with esophageal atresia.

METHODS

Participants underwent standardized upper endoscopies with biopsies. Surveillance intervals of 3-5 years were applied, depending on age and histopathological results. Patient's age and time to development of (pre)malignant lesions were calculated.

RESULTS

A total of 271 patients with esophageal atresia (55% male; median age at baseline endoscopy 26.7 (range 15.6-68.5) years; colon interposition n = 17) were included. Barrett's esophagus was found in 19 (7%) patients (median age 32.3 (17.8-56.0) years at diagnosis). Youngest patient with a clinically relevant Barrett's esophagus was 20.9 years. Follow-up endoscopies were performed in 108 patients (40%; median follow-up time 4.6 years). During surveillance, four patients developed Barrett's esophagus but no dysplasia or cancer was found. One 45-year-old woman with a colon interposition developed an adenoma with high-grade dysplasia which was radically removed. Two new cases of esophageal carcinoma were diagnosed in patients (55 and 66 years old) who were not under surveillance. One of them had been curatively treated for esophageal carcinoma 13 years ago.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows that endoscopic screening of patients with esophageal atresia, including those with a colon interposition, can be started at 20 years of age. Up to the age of 40 years a surveillance interval of 10 years appeared to be safe. Endoscopic surveillance may also be warranted for patients after curative esophageal cancer treatment.

Laparoscopic fundoplication after oesophageal atresia repair

BACKGROUND

Esophageal atresia (EA) is a rare congenital malformation. A high incidence of GER unresponsive to medical management is noted with EA. Literature suggests that complications from GER can persist in adulthood. In paediatric age, laparoscopic treatment is a valid option even if recurrence rate is not negligible.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

To evaluate our experience with gastro-esophageal reflux (GER) treatment after esophageal atresia (EA) repair.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We retrospectively analysed 29 consecutive patients treated for EA at birth and studied for GER at our Institute in a period of 11 years.

RESULTS

24/29 (82,7%) cases had symptoms of reflux, 17/29 (58,6%) cases were treated with laparoscopic fundoplication (LF). Three infants were younger than 6 months and had apparent life threatening events (ALTE) condition as principal indication for surgery. No intra-operative complications occurred. 3/17 LF had open surgical conversion due to technical problems. 2/17 cases required a second operation. At the last follow-up: (1) 6/17 (35,3%) of patients healed after the last operation, (2) 8/17 (47,1%) have GER improvement (four still in medical treatment), (3) 2/17 (11,8%) have persistent GER, (4) 1/17 (5,9%) died for causes not related to antireflux surgery.

CONCLUSIONS

According to literature and to our retrospective analysis, LF for GER after EA repair is feasible, even if recurrence risk is not negligible. Infants less than 6 months old with associated conditions (malformations, gastrostomy/jejunostomy) seem to have a higher failure rate with a greater risk of conversion. Longer follow-up and multicenter experiences would guarantee an adequate surveillance for patients with EA.

Predictors of histopathological esophagitis in infants and adolescents with esophageal atresia within a national follow-up programme

PURPOSE

Esophageal atresia (EA) is a congenital anomaly of the foregut. Although the survival has improved over the years there is a significant gastrointestinal morbidity affecting physical function and health-related quality of life. The aims of the study were to identify and evaluate predictors of histopathological esophagitis in infants and adolescents with EA.

METHODS

Single centre, cross-sectional study including one and 15-year-old patients operated for EA that participated in the national follow-up programme between 2012 and 2020 according to a pre-established protocol including upper endoscopy with oesophageal biopsies and 24h-pH-test. Data was collected from patients' medical records and pH-analysis software. Regression models were used to identify predictors of histopathological oesophagitis. Possible predictors were abnormal reflux index, endoscopic esophagitis, hiatal hernia, symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux (GER) and age.

RESULTS

65 patients were included, 47 children and 18 adolescents. All children were treated with PPI during their first year of life. Symptoms of GER were reported by 13 (31.7%) of the infant's caregivers, 34 of the children (72.3%) had abnormal reflux index and 32 (68.1%) had histopathological esophagitis. The corresponding numbers for adolescents were 8 (50%), 15 (83.3%) and 10 (55.6%). We found no significant associations between histopathological esophagitis and endoscopic esophagitis, symptoms of GER, hiatus hernia or age group. Abnormal reflux index was an independent predictor of histopathological esophagitis. Seven patients with normal reflux index had histopathological esophagitis, all grade I.

CONCLUSIONS

We found a high prevalence of histopathological esophagitis despite PPI treatment in accordance with recommendations. No significant difference between the two age groups was seen. Abnormal reflux index was an independent predictor of histopathological esophagitis. However, we cannot recommend the use of pH-metry as a substitute for esophageal biopsies; future studies are needed to elucidate if esophageal biopsies might be postponed in infants with normal reflux index.

Pharmacogenomics fail to explain proton pump inhibitor refractory esophagitis in pediatric esophageal atresia

BACKGROUND

Esophagitis is prevalent in patients with esophageal dysmotility despite acid suppression, likely related to poor esophageal clearance. Esophageal atresia (EA) is a classic model of dysmotility where this observation holds true. In adult non-dysmotility populations, failure of esophagitis to respond to proton pump inhibitors (PPI) has been linked to variants in CYP2C19 that influence the activity of the encoded enzyme. It is unknown if CYP2C19 metabolizer phenotype contributes to PPI-refractory, non-allergic esophagitis in EA.

METHODS

We performed a cross-sectional study of 314 children with (N = 188) and without (N = 126) EA who were on PPI therapy at the time of endoscopy to evaluate for possible gastroesophageal reflux disease. Patients with eosinophilic esophagitis and/or fundoplication were excluded. Clinical and histology data were collected. Genomic DNA from biopsy samples was genotyped for polymorphisms in CYP2C19.

RESULTS

CYP2C19 metabolizer phenotypes were not associated with presence or severity of esophagitis (P = 0.994). In a multivariate logistic regression adjusted for potential confounders, EA was the strongest and only significant predictor of esophagitis (odds ratio 2.72, P = 0.023). Using negative binomial regression, we found that CYP2C19 phenotype was not a significant predictor of eosinophil count in children with PPI-refractory esophagitis.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with EA are significantly more likely to experience PPI-refractory, non-allergic esophagitis than controls regardless of CYP2C19 metabolizer phenotype, suggesting that factors other than CYP2C19 genetics, including dysmotility, are the primary drivers of esophagitis in EA. CYP2C19 genotype failed to predict PPI-refractory, non-allergic esophagitis in both EA and non-EA children.

[Current Treatment of Oesophageal Atresia]

Oesophageal atresia is a rare congenital malformation occurring in 1 : 3000/1 : 4000 neonates. Surgical correction is always required. Perioperative management concepts depend on the type of malformation. Postoperative results are closely related to postsurgical complications. Interdisciplinary management should extend from prenatal diagnosis, birth and perinatal care to neonatal intensive care and paediatric surgical therapy with specialised pediatric anaesthesia. Other areas that should be available are logopedia, paediatric gastroenterology and paediatric pulmonology. Long-term care should include systematic aftercare and transition programs to adult medicine.

Patient-driven healthcare recommendations for adults with esophageal atresia and their families

BACKGROUND

Adults with esophageal atresia (EA) require a multidisciplinary follow-up approach, taking into account gastroesophageal problems, respiratory problems and psychosocial wellbeing. Too little is known about the full scope of these individuals' healthcare needs. We aimed to map all medical and psychosocial needs of adults with EA and their family members, and to formulate healthcare recommendations for daily practice.

METHODS

A qualitative study was performed, using data from recorded semi-structured interviews with two focus groups, one consisting of adult patients with EA (n = 15) and one of their family members (n = 13). After verbatim transcription and computerized thematic analysis, results were organized according to the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health. Ethical approval had been obtained.

RESULTS

Healthcare needs were described through 74 codes, classified into 20 themes. Most important findings for patients included the impact of gastrointestinal and pulmonary problems on daily life, long-term emotional distress of patients and parents and the need of a standardized multidisciplinary follow-up program during both child- and adulthood.

CONCLUSION

The focus groups revealed numerous physical and mental health problems, as well as social difficulties, that require attention from different healthcare providers. We have formulated several healthcare recommendations that physicians may use in long-term follow-up.

Quality of Life Outcomes in Primary Caregivers of Children with Esophageal Atresia

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the quality of life (QoL) impact on primary caregivers of children with esophageal atresia.

STUDY DESIGN

We used a prospective cohort study design, inviting primary caregivers of children with esophageal atresia to complete the following questionnaires: Parent Experience of Child Illness (PECI), Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) Anxiety, PROMIS Depression, 12-Item Short Form Survey (SF-12), and Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory (PedsQL). The PECI, PROMIS Anxiety and Depression, and SF-12 assessed caregiver QoL, and the PedsQL assessed patient QoL. Patients with Gross type E esophageal atresia served as controls.

RESULTS

The primary caregivers of 100 patients (64 males, 36 females; median age, 4.6 years; range, 3.5 months to 19.0 years) completed questionnaires. The majority (76 of 100) of patients had Gross type C esophageal atresia. A VACTERL (vertebral anomalies, anorectal malformation, cardiac anomalies, tracheoesophageal fistula, renal anomalies, limb anomalies) association was found in 30, ≥1 esophageal dilatation was performed in 57, and fundoplication was performed in 11/100. When stratified by esophageal atresia types, significant differences were found in 2 PECI subscales (unresolved sorrow/anger, P = .02; uncertainty, P = .02), in PROMIS Anxiety (P = .02), and in SF-12 mental health (P = .02) and mental component summary scores (P = .02). No significant differences were found for VACTERL association, nor esophageal dilatation. Requirement for fundoplication resulted in lower SF-12 general health score, and lower PedsQL social and physical functioning scores.

CONCLUSIONS

We have demonstrated that caring for a child with esophageal atresia and a previous requirement for fundoplication impacts caregiver QoL.

Long term digestive outcome of œsophageal atresia

Œsophageal atresia is a rare neonatal malformation consisting in an interruption of the continuity of the œsophagus, with or without a tracheo-œsophageal fistula. Although mortality rate is now low and most cases can benefit from successful surgical repair soon after birth, morbidity -specially digestive and nutritional-remains high. Many of the adults born with œsophageal atresia will suffer from dysphagia, gastro-œsophageal reflux and/or œsophageal dysmotility, leading to nutritional consequences and quality of life impairment. Barrett's œsophagus, potential risk of œsophageal cancer as well as risk of anastomotic stenosis and eosinophilic œsophagitis justify transition to adulthood and a lifelong prolonged follow-up.

Barrett's oesophagus and oesophageal cancer following oesophageal atresia repair: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Concern exists that patients born with oesophageal atresia (OA) may be at high risk for Barrett's oesophagus (BO), a known malignant precursor to the development of oesophageal adenocarcinoma. Screening endoscopy has a role in early BO identification but is not universal in this population. This study aimed to determine prevalence of BO after OA repair surgery, to quantify the magnitude of this association and inform the need for screening and surveillance.

METHODS

A systematic review, undertaken according to PRISMA guidelines, was preregistered on PROSPERO (CRD42017081001). PubMed and EMBASE were interrogated using a standardized search strategy on 31 July 2020. Included papers, published in English, reported either: one or more patients with either BO (gastric/intestinal metaplasia) or oesophageal cancer in patients born with OA; or long-term (greater than 2 years) follow-up after OA surgery with or without endoscopic screening or surveillance.

RESULTS

Some 134 studies were identified, including 19 case reports or series and 115 single- or multi-centre cohort studies. There were 13 cases of oesophageal cancer (9 squamous cell carcinoma, 4 adenocarcinoma) with a mean age at diagnosis of 40.5 (range 20-47) years. From 6282 patients under long-term follow-up, 317 patients with BO were reported. Overall prevalence of BO was 5.0 (95 per cent c.i. 4.5 to 5.6) per cent, with a mean age at detection of 13.8 years (range 8 months to 56 years). Prevalence of BO in series reporting endoscopic screening or surveillance was 12.8 (95 per cent c.i. 11.3 to 14.5) per cent.

CONCLUSION

Despite a limited number of cancers, the prevalence of BO in patients born with OA is relatively high. While limited by the quality of available evidence, this review suggests endoscopic screening and surveillance may be warranted, but uncertainties remain over the design and effectiveness of any putative programme.

Predictors of poor outcomes in children with tracheoesophageal fistula/oesophageal atresia: an Australian experience

Objective

The aim of this study is to characterize long-term morbidities of oesophageal atresia (OA) with or without tracheoesophageal fistula (TOF).

Methods

Infants born with OA/TOF from 2000 to 2016 in Western Australia were included for analysis. Infants were categorized into high-risk and low-risk groups based on the presence of one or more perioperative risk factors [low birth weight, vertebraldefects, anal atresia, cardiac defects, TOF, renalanomalies, limb abnormalities (VACTERL), anastomotic leak, long gap OA, and failure to establish oral feeds within the first month] identified by a previous Canadian study. Frequency of morbidities in infants with perioperative risk factors was compared.

Results

Of 102 patients, 88 (86%) had OA with distal TOF (type C). The most common morbidities in our cohort were anastomotic oesophageal strictures (AS) (n=53, 52%), tracheomalacia (n=48, 47%), gastroesophageal reflux disease (GORD) (n=42, 41%) and recurrent respiratory tract infections (n=40, 39%). Presence of GORD (30/59 vs 12/43, p=0.04) and median frequency of AS dilatations (8 vs 3, n=59, p=0.03) were greater in the high-risk group. This study further confirmed that inability to be fed orally within the first month was associated with high morbidities.

Conclusions

Gastrointestinal and respiratory morbidities remain high in OA/TOF regardless of perioperative risk factors. Inability to be fed orally within the first month is a predictor of poor outcomes with high frequency of gastrointestinal and respiratory comorbidities.

Evaluation of Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease 1 Year after Esophageal Atresia Repair: Paradigms Lost from a Single Snapshot?

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the findings of both multichannel intraluminal impedance with pH (MII-pH) and endoscopy/histopathology in children with esophageal atresia at age 1 year, according to current recommendations for the evaluation of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) in esophageal atresia.

STUDY DESIGN

We retrospectively reviewed both MII-pH and endoscopy/histopathology performed in 1-year-old children with esophageal atresia who were followed up in accordance with international recommendations. Demographic data and clinical characteristics were also reviewed to investigate factors associated with abnormal GERD investigations.

RESULTS

In our study cohort of 48 children with esophageal atresia, microscopic esophagitis was found in 33 (69%) and pathological esophageal acid exposure on MII-pH was detected in 12 (25%). Among baseline variables, only the presence of long-gap esophageal atresia was associated with abnormal MII-pH. Distal baseline impedance was significantly lower in patients with microscopic esophagitis, and it showed a very good diagnostic performance in predicting histological changes.

CONCLUSIONS

Histological esophagitis is highly prevalent at 1 year after esophageal atresia repair, but our results do not support a definitive causative role of acid-induced GERD. Instead, they support the hypothesis that chronic stasis in the dysmotile esophagus might lead to histological changes. MII-pH may be a helpful tool in selecting patients who need closer endoscopic surveillance and/or benefit from acid suppression.

Care recommendations for the respiratory complications of esophageal atresia-tracheoesophageal fistula

Tracheoesophageal fistula (TEF) with esophageal atresia (EA) is a common congenital anomaly that is associated with significant respiratory morbidity throughout life. The objective of this document is to provide a framework for the diagnosis and management of the respiratory complications that are associated with the condition. As there are no randomized controlled studies on the subject, a group of experts used a modification of the Rand Appropriateness Method to describe the various aspects of the condition in terms of their relative importance, and to rate the available diagnostic methods and therapeutic interventions on the basis of their appropriateness and necessity. Specific recommendations were formulated and reported as Level A, B, and C based on whether they were based on "strong", "moderate" or "weak" agreement. The tracheomalacia that exists in the site of the fistula was considered the main abnormality that predisposes to all other respiratory complications due to airway collapse and impaired clearance of secretions. Aspiration due to impaired airway protection reflexes is the main underlying contributing mechanism. Flexible bronchoscopy is the main diagnostic modality, aided by imaging modalities, especially CT scans of the chest. Noninvasive positive airway pressure support, surgical techniques such as tracheopexy and rarely tracheostomy are required for the management of severe tracheomalacia. Regular long-term follow-up by a multidisciplinary team was considered imperative. Specific templates outlining the elements of the clinical respiratory evaluation according to the patients' age were also developed.

Characterization of Esophageal Motility in Children With Operated Esophageal Atresia Using High-resolution Impedance Manometry and Pressure Flow Analysis

OBJECTIVES

Esophageal dysmotility is common in patients with esophageal atresia (EA). High-resolution impedance manometry and pressure flow analysis (PFA) allow characterization of biomechanical events that drive bolus flow. The aims were to assess esophageal motility in children with EA, using PFA, and to test whether there is a correlation between PFA parameters and symptoms or endoscopic/histologic findings.

METHODS

High-resolution impedance manometry was performed in 16 children with EA (median age 11 years), compared with 13 patient controls (median age 14 years; P = NS vs patients). Wet swallows were analyzed using PFA. Medical charts were reviewed for symptoms and pathology results of the attendant esophagoscopy. Patients with EA were arbitrarily subgrouped according to their motility pattern: group A with presence of distal contraction in ≥50% of the swallows and group B with presence of distal contractions in <50% of the swallows.

RESULTS

Esophageal peristaltic motor patterns were abnormal in all patients with EA. Bolus transport was impaired as shown by the higher impedance ratio in EA than in controls (0.47 vs 0.22; P < 0.001). Impedance ratio was also higher in group B (n = 8) versus group A (n = 8) (P < 0.001). Symptoms of dysphagia were not correlated with the PFA measures. Contractile segment impedance, a marker of mucosal integrity, was significantly lower in the EA group.

CONCLUSIONS

Bolus transport was severely altered in patients with EA but was not predictive of symptoms. The presence of residual distal contractions is associated with a more efficient bolus propulsion.

Detection of reflux-symptom association in children with esophageal atresia by video-pH-impedance study

BACKGROUND

Children with esophageal atresia (EA) have risk of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), suggesting reflux monitoring for prompt management.

AIM

To evaluate GERD in children with EA and specific symptom association from combined Video with Multichannel Intraluminal Impedance and pH (MII-pH) study.

METHODS

Children diagnosed with EA with suspected GERD and followed up at King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital between January 2000 and December 2018 were prospectively studied. All underwent esophagogastroduodenoscopy with esophageal biopsy and Video MII-pH study on the same day. Symptoms of GERD which included both esophageal and extra-esophageal symptom were recorded from video monitoring and abnormal reflux from MII-pH study based on the statement from the European Paediatric Impedance Group. Prevalence of GERD was also reported by using histopathology as a gold standard. Endoscopic appearance was recorded using Los Angeles Classification and esophagitis severity was graded using Esohisto criteria.

RESULTS

Fifteen children were recruited with age of 3.1 (2.2, 9.8) years (40%, male) and the common type was C (93.3%). The symptoms recorded were cough (75.2%), vomiting (15.2%), irritability or unexplained crying (7.6%) and dysphagia (1.9%) with the symptom-reflux association of 45.7%, 89%, 71% and 0%, respectively. There were abnormal endoscopic appearance in 52.9%, esophagitis in 64.7% and high reflux score in 47.1%. Video MII-pH study has high diagnostic value with the sensitivity, specificity and accuracy of 72.7%, 100% and 82.4%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Prevalence of GERD in children with EA was high. Video MII-pH study to detect GERD in children with EA had high diagnostic value with the trend of specific symptom association.

Agreement between mothers', fathers', and children's' ratings on health-related quality of life in children born with esophageal atresia - a German cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Esophageal atresia (EA) is a rare congenital malformation, which is characterized by the discontinuity of the esophagus. We investigated the agreement between mothers', fathers', and children's' ratings on health-related quality of life (HRQOL) in children born with EA. We aimed to broaden the understanding of subjective experiences of HRQOL from different perspectives. We hypothesized that the agreement between mother and father ratings would be high, whereas the agreement between child and mother ratings as well as child and father ratings would show more substantial differences.

METHODS

We obtained data from 40 families (23 mother-father dyads of children aged 2-7 years and 17 mother-father-child triads of children and adolescents aged 8-18 years) with children born with EA, who were treated in two German hospitals. HRQOL was measured using the generic PedsQL™ questionnaires and the condition-specific EA-QOL© questionnaires. We calculated intraclass coefficients and performed one-way repeated measures ANOVAs to analyze differences for each domain as well as for the total scores.

RESULTS

Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) indicated a strong agreement (≥.80) between mother and father reports of children's HRQOL for both generic and condition-specific measurements. The ICCs for the generic HRQOL for mother/father-child-dyads revealed only fair to good agreement, whereas ICCs for condition-specific HRQOL showed high agreement for mother-child and father-child-agreement. Analyses of Covariance revealed differences in mother/father-child agreement in the generic domain School, both parents reporting lower HRQOL scores than the children themselves. Fathers reported significantly higher scores in the condition-specific domain Social than their children.

CONCLUSIONS

Results showed that mothers' and fathers' reports corresponded to each other. Nonetheless, these reports might not be interchangeably used because mother-child and father-child agreement showed differences. Children might know the best on how they feel, and parent proxy-report is recommended when reasons such as young age, illness, or cognitive impairments do not allow to ask the child. But parent-report - no matter if reported by mother or father - should only be an additional source to broaden the view on the child's health status and well-being. The current study contributes to a better understanding of the complex family relationships involved when parenting a child born with EA.

Esophagitis in Pediatric Esophageal Atresia: Acid May Not Always Be the Issue

OBJECTIVE

Esophagitis is highly prevalent in patients with esophageal atresia (EA). Peptic esophagitis has long been assumed to be the primary cause of esophagitis in this population, and prolonged acid suppressive medication usage is common; such treatment is of unknown benefit and carries potential risk.

METHODS

To better understand the role of commonly used antireflux treatments in EA, we analyzed all patients with repaired EA who underwent endoscopy with biopsies at our institution between January 2016 and August 2018. Macroscopic erosive and histologic esophagitis on biopsy was graded per predefined criteria. Clinical characteristics including acid suppressive medication usage, type of EA and repair, presence of hiatal hernia, and history of fundoplication were reviewed.

RESULTS

There were 310 unique patients (33.5% long gap EA) who underwent 576 endoscopies with biopsies during the study period. Median age at endoscopy was 3.7 years (interquartile range 21-78 months). Erosive esophagitis was found in 8.7% of patients (6.1% of endoscopies); any degree of histologic eosinophilia (≥1 eosinophil/high power field [HPF]) was seen in 56.8% of patients (48.8% of endoscopies), with >15 eosinophils/HPF seen in 15.2% of patients (12.3% of endoscopies). Acid suppression was common; 86.9% of endoscopies were preceded by acid suppressive medication use. Fundoplication had been performed in 78 patients (25.2%). Proton pump inhibitor (PPI) and/or H2 receptor antagonist (H2RA) use were the only significant predictors of reduced odds for abnormal esophageal biopsy (P = 0.011 for PPI, P = 0.048 for H2RA, and P = 0.001 for PPI combined with H2RA therapy). However, change in intensity of acid suppressive therapy by either dosage or frequency was not significantly associated with change in macroscopic erosive or histologic esophagitis (P > 0.437 and P > 0.13, respectively). Presence or integrity of a fundoplication was not significantly associated with esophagitis (P = 0.236).

CONCLUSIONS

In EA patients, acid suppressive medication therapy is associated with reduced odds of abnormal esophageal biopsy, though histologic esophagitis is highly prevalent even with high rates of acid suppressive medication use. Esophagitis is likely multifactorial in EA patients, with peptic esophagitis as only one of multiple possible etiologies for esophageal inflammation. The clinical significance of histologic eosinophilia in this population warrants further investigation.

Neonatal factors predictive for respiratory and gastro-intestinal morbidity after esophageal atresia repair

BACKGROUND

Esophageal atresia is a major congenital foregut anomaly. Affected patients often suffer from respiratory and gastro-intestinal morbidity. The objective of this study is to identify possible neonatal predictive factors contributing to a long-term complicated clinical course in patients after repair of esophageal atresia.

METHODS

A total of 93 patients born between 1993 and 2013, with esophageal atresia and surviving the neonatal period were included in this retrospective study. A complicated clinical course was defined as the occurrence of ≥1 of these complications: severe gastro-esophageal reflux, esophageal stricture requiring dilatations, need for tube feeding for >100 days, severe tracheomalacia, severe chronic respiratory disease and death. We used linear models with a binomial distribution to determine risk factors for gastro-intestinal or respiratory complicated evolution and a backward stepwise elimination procedure to reduce models until only significant variables remained in the model. Multinomial logistic regression was used to assess risk factors for different evolutions of complication. Model parameter estimates were used to calculate odds ratios for significant risk factors.

RESULTS

Fifty-seven patients (61%) had a complicated clinical course in the first year of life and 47 (51%) had a complicated evolution during years 1-6. In the first year, prematurity was a significant factor for complicated gastro-intestinal (OR 2.84) and respiratory evolution (OR 2.93). After 1 year, gastro-intestinal morbidity in childhood was associated with VACTERL association (OR 12.2) and a complicated first year (OR 36.1). Respiratory morbidity was associated with congenital heart disease (OR 12.9) and a complicated first year (OR 86.9). Multinomial logistic regression showed that prematurity (p = 0.018) and VACTERL association (p = 0.003) were significant factors of complications.

CONCLUSION

Prematurity is an important predictive factor for a complicated clinical course in early life. A complicated first year often predicts a complicated clinical course in childhood. These risk factors may be helpful in counseling of parents in the neonatal period.

Oesophageal atresia

Oesophageal atresia (EA) is a congenital abnormality of the oesophagus that is caused by incomplete embryonic compartmentalization of the foregut. EA commonly occurs with a tracheo-oesophageal fistula (TEF). Associated birth defects or anomalies, such as VACTERL association, trisomy 18 or 21 and CHARGE syndrome, occur in the majority of patients born with EA. Although several studies have revealed signalling pathways and genes potentially involved in the development of EA, our understanding of the pathophysiology of EA lags behind the improvements in surgical and clinical care of patients born with this anomaly. EA is treated surgically to restore the oesophageal interruption and, if present, ligate and divide the TEF. Survival is now ~90% in those born with EA with severe associated anomalies and even higher in those born with EA alone. Despite these achievements, long-term gastrointestinal and respiratory complications and comorbidities in patients born with EA are common and lead to decreased quality of life. Oesophageal motility disorders are probably ubiquitous in patients after undergoing EA repair and often underlie these complications and comorbidities. The implementation of several new diagnostic and screening tools in clinical care, including high-resolution impedance manometry, pH-multichannel intraluminal impedance testing and disease-specific quality of life questionnaires now provide better insight into these problems and may contribute to better long-term outcomes in the future.

Cystic fibrosis is associated with an increased risk of Barrett's esophagus

BACKGROUND

Cystic fibrosis (CF) patients have increased risks of gastrointestinal cancers, including esophageal adenocarcinoma. Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is highly prevalent in CF and manifests at early ages. CF patients may be at increased risk for long-term sequelae of chronic GERD, including Barrett's esophagus (BE). We aimed to assess whether patients with CF have an increased risk of BE or related neoplasia.

METHODS

A matched cohort study was performed of adults with and without CF who had undergone upper endoscopy. Non-CF patients were matched in a 4:1 ratio by age, sex, year of exam, and endoscopist. Odds ratios were calculated for the association between CF and BE or related neoplasia, and multivariable logistic regression modeling was performed to adjust for matching variables and additional potential confounders.

RESULTS

122 CF patients underwent endoscopy, and 488 matched controls were identified. Seven (5.7%) CF patients had BE or related neoplasia, including one GE junction adenocarcinoma. Mean age of affected CF patients was 36.0, and 85.7% had a prior solid organ transplant. The odds of BE was significantly increased in CF patients (OR 2.91, 95% CI 1.08-7.81). The risk remained significantly increased in a multivariable model including matching variables (OR 3.32, 95% CI 1.19-9.22) and in a parsimonious model (OR 2.99, 95% CI 1.06-8.42).

CONCLUSIONS

Adults with CF have a 3-fold increased risk of BE or related neoplasia and appears to develop at younger ages. Consideration should be given to screening for BE in select CF patients, especially those who have undergone solid organ transplantation.

Location of TEF at the carina as an indicator of long-gap C-type esophageal atresia

We analyzed retrospectively the outcomes in long gap Gross type C esophageal atresia. We hypothesized that outcomes in type C (long gap) atresia differ from type C (normal gap) and be similar with outcomes in Gross type A and B esophageal atresia. Location of the distal tracheoesophageal fistula (TEF) at the carina was chosen as the hallmark of type C atresia (long gap). We compared the type of esophageal repair, major reoperations for anastomotic complications and gastroesophageal reflux, and long-term mucosal changes between type C (normal gap), type C (long gap), and type A/B. We analyzed the hospital charts of 247 successive patients from 1984 to 2014 who either underwent repair of esophageal atresia in our institution (n = 232) or were referred from elsewhere because of anastomotic complications (n = 15). Among the 232 patients of our institution, 181 had type C and 21 type A or B esophageal atresia. Twenty-two (12%) of type C patients had TEF at the carina and were considered as type C (long gap). The referred patients included a disproportionately high number (42%) of patients with type C (long gap). We attempted primary anastomosis in 98% of patients with type C (normal gap), in 95% with type C (long gap), and 53% with type A/B underwent delayed primary anastomosis. Leakage after primary anastomosis occurred in 40% of patients with type A/B and in 23% with type C (long gap) compared with 6% in patients with type C (normal gap) (P < 0.05). Recalcitrant anastomotic stricture that eventually required esophageal resection occurred in 30% of patients with type A/B and in 18% with type C (long gap) compared with 3% in patients with type C (normal gap) (P < 0.05). The overall rate of major reoperations for anastomotic complications after primary anastomosis, type A/B (36%), type C (long gap) (27%), and antireflux surgery, type A/B (100%) and type C (long gap) (61%) were higher than in type C (normal gap), (9% and 24%), (P < 0.05 in both). Ten (47%) patients with type A/B esophageal atresia (primary anastomosis not possible n = 10), three (14%) with type C (long gap) (primary anastomosis not possible n = 1, significant loss of esophageal length after complications n = 2) and two (1%) with type C (normal gap) (significant loss of esophageal length after complications n = 2) underwent esophageal reconstruction. Endoscopic follow-up, median length 7.0 (IQR: 3.0-14) years, disclosed gastric metaplasia in 31% and 33% of patients with type A/B and type C (long gap) compared with 11% in type C (normal gap) (P < 0.05). Intestinal metaplasia was found in one patient type C (normal gap) (0.7%) and one with type C (long gap) (5.6%), (P = 0.21), only. The outcomes of type C (long gap) esophageal atresia are associated with more frequent complications, gastroesophageal reflux and esophageal mucosal changes than outcomes in type C (normal gap). Outcomes in type C (long gap) esophageal atresia resemble those in type A/B. The percentage of patients who remain with their native esophagus is, however, higher in type C (long gap) atresia (86%) than in type A/B (53%).

A patient led, international study of long term outcomes of esophageal atresia: EAT 1

INTRODUCTION

Long term outcomes of esophageal atresia (OA) are poorly understood. The Federation of Esophageal Atresia and Tracheo-Esophageal Fistula support groups (EAT), a collaboration of patient support groups aimed to define patient reported long term outcomes and quality of life (QoL) in a large international cohort of OA patients.

METHODS

Questionnaires were designed focusing on patient/parent reported outcomes including surgical history, current symptomatology and quality of life. Members of support groups within EAT were invited to complete questionnaires electronically via SurveyMonkey®.

RESULTS

1100 patients from 25 countries responded to the questionnaire and 928 were analyzed. 80% had type C anatomy, 19% type A and 1% type E. Patient ages were <5 years (42%), 5-10 years (26%), 11-17 years (16%) and 18 years and older (16%). 49% of all patients reported previous dilatations which was similar across age groups. Reflux symptoms affected 58% of patients and persisted into adulthood. Dysphagia also persisted in the adult population with 50% reporting sometimes or often getting food stuck. Reflux was significantly more frequent in 'long gap' versus 'standard gap' patients (p<0.005). Respiratory symptoms and chest infections decreased in frequency with age. In children median SDS for height was -0.41 (IQR -1.4 to 0.67) and that for weight was -0.63 (-1.6 to 0.67). BMI in adults was 21.5. Quality of life was described as significantly affected by OA in 18% of patients while 25% reported no effect on QoL.

CONCLUSIONS

These results highlight the significant long term morbidity suffered by OA patients as children and into adulthood and suggest the need for quality transitional care. The patient designed and reported nature of the study gives a unique perspective to the results and emphasizes the benefits of collaboration.

High Prevalence of Barrett's Esophagus and Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma After Repair of Esophageal Atresia

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Esophageal atresia is rare, but improved surgical and intensive care techniques have increased rates of survival in children, so there are now many adults with this disorder. Many patients with esophageal atresia develop gastroesophageal reflux (GER), raising concerns about increased risk of Barrett's esophagus (BE; prevalence of 1.3%-1.6% in general population) and esophageal carcinoma. We assessed the prevalence of BE and esophageal carcinoma in this population.

METHODS

We performed a prospective study of 289 patients with esophageal atresia at the Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology at Erasmus MC University Medical Center in The Netherlands, from May 2012 through March 2017. A total of 151 (median age, 25.4 y; age range, 16.8-68.6 y) underwent upper endoscopies as part of a surveillance program for (pre)malignant esophageal lesions. Biopsies were collected and analyzed by histology. We collected data on patients' use of medications, tobacco, and alcohol; gastrointestinal symptoms; ability to swallow; complaints of GER; and type of atresia and surgeries. Prevalence of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) was determined using data from The Netherlands Cancer Registry. The number of persons alive on January 1, 2016, in the esophageal atresia cohort and in the general Dutch population were used to calculate the 10-year prevalence of ESCC per 100,000 persons in both populations.

RESULTS

Forty-seven percent of patients with esophageal atresia had a history of GER and 20.5% had undergone fundoplication surgery. Endoscopy revealed normal esophagus in 68.2% of patients, esophagitis in 7.3%, and columnar-lined esophagus in 24.5%. Histology revealed normal mucosa in 50.3% of patients, esophagitis in 23.2%, gastric metaplasia in 17.2%, and BE in 6.6% (at a median age of 31.6 years). A history of fundoplication surgery was associated with BE (P = .03). Three ESCCs developed, in 2 men, at ages 42, 44, and 60 years. This corresponded to a prevalence of 0.7% in patients with esophageal atresia-a value 108-fold higher than in the same age group in the general population.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of BE is 4-fold higher in young adults with esophageal atresia, and the prevalence of ESCC is 108-fold higher than in the general population. This finding could have important implications for transition of young adults from pediatric care to adult gastroenterology departments to receive life-long endoscopic follow-up evaluation to facilitate early diagnosis of relevant lesions.

Four cancer cases after esophageal atresia repair: Time to start screening the upper gastrointestinal tract

Esophageal atresia (EA) is one of the most common congenital digestive malformations and requires surgical correction early in life. Dedicated centers have reported survival rates up to 95%. The most frequent comorbidities after EA repair are dysphagia (72%) and gastroesophageal reflux (GER) (67%). Chronic GER after EA repair might lead to mucosal damage, esophageal stricturing, Barrett’s esophagus and eventually esophageal adenocarcinoma. Several long-term follow-up studies found an increased risk of Barrett’s esophagus and esophageal carcinoma in EA patients, both at a relatively young age. Given these findings, the recent ESPGHAN-NASPGHAN guideline recommends routine endoscopy in adults born with EA. We report a series of four EA patients who developed a carcinoma of the gastrointestinal tract: three esophageal carcinoma and one colorectal carcinoma in a colonic interposition. These cases emphasize the importance of lifelong screening of the upper gastrointestinal tract in EA patients.

Outcomes of fundoplication in oesophageal atresia associated gastrooesophageal reflux disease

AIM OF THE STUDY

Conservative management of gastrooesophageal reflux (GORD) in oesophageal atresia (OA) is sometimes inefficient, and fundoplication is required. We assessed the outcomes of fundoplication among OA patients from 1980 to 2016.

METHODS

After ethical consent, hospital records of 290 patients, including 22 referred patients, were reviewed. Included were 262 patients with end-to-end repair. Excluded were patients who underwent oesophageal reconstruction (n=23) or no repair (n=5). Primary outcome measures included survival, retaining the native oesophagus, resolution of GGORD symptoms, failure of fundoplication, and long-term endoscopic results.

MAIN RESULTS

Gross types of OA in 262 patients were A (n=12), B (n=2), C (n=217), D (n=10), E (n=19), and F (n=2). Eighty-six (33%) patients, type A (n=12, 100%), B (n=2, 100%), C (n=69, 31%), D (n=3, 30%), and F (n=1, 50%), underwent fundoplication at the median age of 5.4 (IQR 3.1-16) months. Main indications included recalcitrant anastomotic stenosis (RAS) in 41 (48%), respiratory symptoms in 16 (19%), and acute life threatening events (ALTE) in 15 (17%) of patients. Associated tracheomalacia in 25 (29%) patients were treated with aortopexy. Median follow-up was 7.5 (IQR 1.8-15) years. RAS resolved in 30 (73%) patients, whereas 11 (27%) with unresolved RAS underwent oesophageal resection (n=8) or replacement (n=3). Six (7%) patients died of heart failure (n=4), bolus impaction (n=1), and ALTE (n=1). Fundoplication failed in 27 (31%) patients, and 13 (15%) underwent redo fundoplication. Fundoplication failure was predicted by long-gap OA RR=3.8 (95%CI=1.1-13), P=0.04. In total GORD associated symptoms persisted in 7 (8%) patients, including one with permanent feeding jejunostomy. Latest endoscopy showed moderate or severe oesophagitis in 7% of fundoplicated and in 3% nonfundoplicated patients and intestinal metaplasia in 3% and 1% (p=0.20-0.29).

CONCLUSION

Fundoplication provided a safe and relatively effective control of OA associated symptomatic GORD and oesophagitis. The failure rate of fundoplication was high in those with long-gap OA.

TYPE OF STUDY

Treatment study.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV.

Changes in quality of life from infancy to school age after esophagoesophagostomy for tracheoesophageal fistula: thoracotomy versus thoracoscopy

BACKGROUND

We assessed the quality of life (QOL) of postoperative esophageal atresia (EA) with tracheoesophageal fistula (TEF) cases, comparing open with thoracoscopic repair.

METHODS

A retrospective review of consecutive EA/TEF repairs (2001-2014) was performed, excluding cases with birth weight less than 2000 g and severe cardiac/chromosomal anomalies. Of 37 cases, 13 had thoracoscopic repair (TR) and 24 had open repair (OR) according to the operating surgeon's preference. QOL was determined regularly by scoring responses to a standard questionnaire about oral intake, vomiting, bougienage, coughing, growth retardation, learning ability, and thoracic deformity. Lower scores reflected poorer outcome. QOL after TR and OR was compared 1 year postoperatively (POQ) and after starting school (ScQ).

RESULTS

Subject demographics were similar. Apart from two anastomotic leaks that resolved spontaneously after TR, there were no intraoperative complications or recurrence of TEF. Laparoscopic fundoplication was required for gastroesophageal reflux in four cases (OR 1; TR 3) (p = ns). QOL scores went from 6.5 → 11.5 in OR and 4.6 → 11.3 in TR, respectively. Final ScQ scores were similar, but POQ was significantly higher after OR (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Initial QOL scores were significantly lower after TR, but by school age QOL scores were similar.

Long-term outcomes of oesophageal atresia without or with proximal tracheooesophageal fistula - Gross types A and B

PURPOSE

Because of an extended gap between esophageal pouches a variety of methods are employed to treat oesophageal atresia (OA) without (type A) or with (type B) proximal tracheooesophageal fistula. This retrospective observational study describes their single centre long-term outcomes from 1947 to 2014.

METHODS

Of 693 patients treated for OA 68 (9.7%) had type A (n=58, 8.3%) or B (n=10, 1.4%). Hospital records were reviewed. Main outcome measures were survival and oral intake.

RESULTS

Nine (13%) patients had early and 10 (15%) delayed primary anastomosis, 30 (44%) underwent reconstruction including colonic interposition (n=13), reversed gastric tube (n=11) and jejunum interposition (n=6), whereas19 (28%) had died without a definite repair. Median follow up was 35 (interquartile range, 7.4-40) years. Thirty-one (63%) of 49 patients with definitive repair survived long term. Survival was 22% for early and 80% for delayed primary anastomosis, 57% for colon interposition, 82% for gastric tube and 84% for jejunum interposition. Gastrooesophageal reflux was most common after gastric tube (80%), dysphagia after colon interposition (50%), and 3 (60%) of 5 survivors with jejunum interposition had permanent feeding ostomy because of neurological disorder. Endoscopic follow-up disclosed no oesophageal cancer or dysplasia. Repair in the most recent patients from 1985 to 2014 (n=14) included delayed primary anastomosis (n=7), jejunum interposition (n=6) and gastric tube (n=1) with 93% long-term survival.

CONCLUSION

Morbidity among long-term survivors of type A or B OA is high. With modern management survival is, however, excellent and patients without neurological disorder achieve full oral intake either after primary anastomosis or reconstruction.

LEVELS OF EVIDENCE

IV.

Respiratory Morbidity in Children with Repaired Congenital Esophageal Atresia with or without Tracheoesophageal Fistula

Congenital esophageal atresia with or without tracheoesophageal fistula (CEA ± TEF) is a relatively common malformation that occurs in 1 of 2500–4500 live births. Despite the refinement of surgical techniques, a considerable proportion of children experience short- and long-term respiratory complications, which can significantly affect their health through adulthood. This review focuses on the underlying mechanisms and clinical presentation of respiratory morbidity in children with repaired CEA ± TEF. The reasons for the short-term pulmonary impairments are multifactorial and related to the surgical complications, such as anastomotic leaks, stenosis, and recurrence of fistula. Long-term respiratory morbidity is grouped into four categories according to the body section or function mainly involved: upper respiratory tract, lower respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, and aspiration and dysphagia. The reasons for the persistence of respiratory morbidity to adulthood are not univocal. The malformation itself, the acquired damage after the surgical repair, various co-morbidities, and the recurrence of lower respiratory tract infections at an early age can contribute to pulmonary impairment. Nevertheless, other conditions, including smoking habits and, in particular, atopy can play a role in the recurrence of infections. In conclusion, our manuscript shows that most children born with CEA ± TEF survive into adulthood, but many comorbidities, mainly esophageal and respiratory issues, may persist. The pulmonary impairment involves many underlying mechanisms, which begin in the first years of life. Therefore, early detection and management of pulmonary morbidity may be important to prevent impairment in pulmonary function and serious long-term complications. To obtain a successful outcome, it is fundamental to ensure a standardized follow-up that must continue until adulthood.

Advances in paediatric gastroenterology

Recent developments in paediatric gastrointestinal surgery have focused on minimally invasive surgery, the accumulation of high-quality clinical evidence, and scientific research. The benefits of minimally invasive surgery for common disorders like appendicitis and hypertrophic pyloric stenosis are all supported by good clinical evidence. Although minimally invasive surgery has been extended to neonatal surgery, it is difficult to establish its role for neonatal disorders such as oesophageal atresia and biliary atresia through clinical trials because of the rarity of these disorders. Advances in treatments for biliary atresia and necrotising enterocolitis have been achieved through specialisation, multidisciplinary management, and multicentre collaboration in research; similarly robust clinical evidence for other rare gastrointestinal disorders is needed. As more neonates with gastrointestinal diseases survive into adulthood, their long-term sequelae will also need evidence-based multidisciplinary care. Identifying cures for long-term problems of a complex developmental anomaly such as Hirschsprung's disease will rely on unravelling its pathogenesis through genetics and the development of stem-cell therapy.

Intestinal Metaplasia of the Esophagus in Children With Esophageal Atresia

OBJECTIVES

Patients with esophageal atresia/tracheoesophageal fistula (EA-TEF) can develop Barrett esophagus as a long-term consequence of their condition. Intestinal metaplasia (IM), a risk factor for developing adenocarcinoma of the esophagus, has not been well characterized in the pediatric population.

METHODS

Retrospective review of patients with EA-TEF followed at 3 academic pediatric centers between the years 1997 and 2014.

RESULTS

Among 542 children and adolescents, 1.3% (7 patients, 5 girls) were diagnosed with IM based on endoscopy and pathology. Six of the patients had EA-TEF type C, whereas the last patient had a "long gap" type A atresia. Patients were diagnosed with gastric metaplasia either before the IM diagnosis in 4 patients or concomitantly in 3. The median (range) age of diagnosis for gastric metaplasia was 7.9 (range 2-17.2) and for IM 10.9 (2-17.2) years. Gastroesophageal reflux (GER) symptoms were nonspecific. Five patients were on proton pump inhibitor therapy for symptomatic GER at the time of diagnosis of IM. 2 of the 7 patients had previously undergone Nissen fundoplication. One patient, who had undergone a Nissen fundoplication, was restarted on proton pump inhibitor once the diagnosis of IM was made. All patients had repeated endoscopy and dysplasia was not observed with a median follow-up of 1.7 (range 1-4.9) years.

CONCLUSIONS

IM occurs in patients with EA-TEF, some as young as 2 years. Therefore, early endoscopic surveillance should be considered in this GER-prone population.