Poor microcirculatory flow dynamics are associated with endothelial cell damage and glycocalyx shedding after traumatic hemorrhagic shock

Targeting Inflammation After Hemorrhagic Shock as a Molecular and Experimental Journey to Improve Outcomes: A Review

Hemorrhagic shock continues to be a major contributor to trauma-related fatalities globally, posing a significant and intricate pathophysiological challenge. The condition is marked by injury and blood loss, which activate molecular cascades that can quickly become harmful. The inflammatory response exhibits a biphasic pattern, beginning with a hyper-inflammatory phase that transitions into immunosuppression, posing significant obstacles to effective therapeutic interventions. This review article explores the intricate molecular mechanisms driving inflammation in hemorrhagic shock, emphasizing cellular signaling pathways, endothelial dysfunction, and immune activation. We discuss the role of molecular biomarkers in tracking disease progression and stratifying risk, with a focus on markers of endothelial dysfunction and inflammatory mediators as potential prognostic tools. Additionally, we assess therapeutic strategies, spanning traditional approaches like hemostatic resuscitation to advanced immunomodulatory treatments. Despite promising advancements in molecular monitoring and targeted therapies, challenges persist in bridging experimental findings with clinical applications. Future efforts must prioritize understanding the dynamic progression of inflammatory pathways and refining the timing of interventions to improve outcomes in hemorrhagic shock management.

Cardiac arrest and microcirculatory dysfunction: a narrative review

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review provides an overview of the role of microcirculation in cardiac arrest and postcardiac arrest syndrome through handheld intravital microscopy and biomarkers. It highlights the importance of microcirculatory dysfunction in postcardiac arrest outcomes and explores potential therapeutic targets.

RECENT FINDINGS

Sublingual microcirculation is impaired in the early stage of postarrest and is potentially associated with increased mortality. Recent work suggests that the proportion of perfused small vessels is predictive of mortality. Microcirculatory impairment is consistently found to be independent of macrohemodynamic parameters. Biomarkers of endothelial cell injury and endothelial glycocalyx degradation are elevated in postarrest settings and may predict mortality and clinical outcomes, warranting further studies. Recent studies of exploratory therapies targeting microcirculation have shown some promise in animal models but still require significant research.

SUMMARY

Although research continues to suggest the important role that microcirculation may play in postcardiac arrest syndrome and cardiac arrest outcomes, the existing studies are still limited to draw any definitive conclusions. Further research is needed to better understand microcirculatory changes and their significance to improve cardiac arrest care and outcomes.

Understanding progressive tissue loss and wound burden in combat casualties: lessons learnt for future operational capability

Understanding tissue loss following injury is important due to its prevalence among the war-wounded and the impact it has on subsequent treatment and rehabilitation. Progressive tissue loss is a type of tissue loss that has complicated extremity injury in recent conflicts. It has resulted in more proximal residual limb lengths and has influenced rehabilitation. Quantifying wound burden in combat casualties remains a challenge due to poor quality of data sets that lack the capacity for detailed analysis. The aims of this article are to outline the current hurdles in attempting to quantify wound burden in combat casualties and to propose simple interventions to improve data capture for future analysis.

Comparing the effects of various fluid resuscitative strategies on Glycocalyx damage in a canine hemorrhage model

Hemorrhagic shock and subsequent resuscitation can cause significant dysregulation of critical systems, including the vascular endothelium. Following hemorrhage, the endothelial lining (glycocalyx) can shed, causing release of glycocalyx components, endothelial activation, and systemic inflammation. A canine model of hemorrhagic shock was used to evaluate five resuscitation fluids, including Lactated Ringers+Hetastarch, Whole Blood (WB), Fresh Frozen Plasma+packed Red Blood Cells (FFP+pRBC), and two hemoglobin-based oxygen carrier (HBOC) fluids, for their impact on glycocalyx shedding. Under anesthesia, purpose-bred adult canines were instrumented and subjected to a controlled hemorrhage with blood being drawn until a mean arterial pressure of <50 mmHg was reached or 40 % of the estimated blood volume was removed. Canines were left in shock for 45 mins before being resuscitated with one of the resuscitation fluids over 30 mins. Following resuscitation, the dogs were monitored up to 2 weeks. Following an additional 3-4 weeks for washout, the canines repeated the protocol, undergoing each resuscitation fluid individually. Blood samples were collected during each round at various timepoints for serum isolation, which was used for detection of glycocalyx biomarker. Comparison of baseline and post-hemorrhage alone showed a significant reduction in serum protein (p<0.0001), heparan sulfate (p<0.001), and syndecan-1 (p<0.0001) concentrations, and a significant increase in hyaluronan (p<0.0001) concentration. Intercomparisons of resuscitation fluids indicated minimal differences in glycocalyx markers over time. Comparisons within each fluid showed dynamic responses in glycocalyx biomarkers over time. Relative to individual baselines, syndecan-1 was significantly reduced after resuscitation in most cases (p<0.0001), excluding WB and FFP+pRBC. In all cases, VE-cadherin was significantly elevated at 24 hr compared to baseline (p<0.001). Hyaluronan was significantly elevated by 3 hr in all cases (p<0.01), except for HBOC fluids. Total glycosaminoglycans were significantly reduced only at 3 hr (p<0.001) for non-HBOC fluids. Similarly, heparan sulfate was significantly reduced with all fluids between resuscitation and 24 hr (p<0.01), except WB. The temporal changes in canine glycocalyx biomarkers were atypical of hemorrhage response in other species. This suggests that the hemorrhage lacked severity and/or typical glycocalyx biomarkers do not reflect the canine endothelium compared to other species. Further research is needed to characterize the canine endothelium and the response to resuscitation fluids.

The endothelium: gatekeeper to lung ischemia-reperfusion injury

The success of lung transplantation is limited by the high rate of primary graft dysfunction due to ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI). Lung IRI is characterized by a robust inflammatory response, lung dysfunction, endothelial barrier disruption, oxidative stress, vascular permeability, edema, and neutrophil infiltration. These events are dependent on the health of the endothelium, which is a primary target of IRI that results in pulmonary endothelial barrier dysfunction. Over the past 10 years, research has focused more on the endothelium, which is beginning to unravel the multi-factorial pathogenesis and immunologic mechanisms underlying IRI. Many important proteins, receptors, and signaling pathways that are involved in the pathogenesis of endothelial dysfunction after IR are starting to be identified and targeted as prospective therapies for lung IRI. In this review, we highlight the more significant mediators of IRI-induced endothelial dysfunction discovered over the past decade including the extracellular glycocalyx, endothelial ion channels, purinergic receptors, kinases, and integrins. While there are no definitive clinical therapies currently available to prevent lung IRI, we will discuss potential clinical strategies for targeting the endothelium for the treatment or prevention of IRI. The accruing evidence on the essential role the endothelium plays in lung IRI suggests that promising endothelial-directed treatments may be approaching the clinic soon. The application of therapies targeting the pulmonary endothelium may help to halt this rapid and potentially fatal injury.

Destruction of vascular endothelial glycocalyx during formation of pre-metastatic niches

A special microenvironment called the "pre-metastatic niche" is thought to help primary tumor cells migrate to new tissues and invade them, in part because the normal barrier function of the vascular endothelium is compromised. While the primary tumor itself can promote the creation of such niches by secreting pro-metastatic factors, the underlying molecular mechanisms are still poorly understood. Here, we show that the injection of primary tumor-secreted pro-metastatic factors from B16F10 melanoma or 4T1 breast cancer cells into healthy mice can induce the destruction of the vascular endothelial glycocalyx, which is a polysaccharide coating on the vascular endothelial lumen that normally inhibits tumor cell passage into and out of the circulation. However, when human umbilical vein endothelial cultures were treated in vitro with these secreted pro-metastatic factors, no significant destruction of the glycocalyx was observed, implying that this destruction requires a complex in vivo microenvironment. The tissue section analysis revealed that secreted pro-metastatic factors could clearly upregulate macrophage-related molecules such as CD11b and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in the heart, liver, spleen, lung, and kidney, which is associated with the upregulation and activation of heparanase. In addition, macrophage depletion significantly attenuated the degradation of the vascular endothelial glycocalyx induced by secreted pro-metastatic factors. This indicates that the secreted pro-metastatic factors that destroy the vascular endothelial glycocalyx rely primarily on macrophages. Our findings suggest that the formation of pre-metastatic niches involves degradation of the vascular endothelial glycocalyx, which may hence be a useful target for developing therapies to inhibit cancer metastasis.

ASSESSMENT OF ABNORMAL SKELETAL MUSCLE PERFUSION BY CONTRAST-ENHANCED ULTRASOUND WITH PARAMETRIC IMAGING IN RATS AFTER SEVERE INJURY, HEMORRHAGIC SHOCK, AND WHOLE BLOOD RESUSCITATION

ABSTRACT

Background: After severe injury, optical measures of microvascular blood flow (MBF) decrease and do not normalize with resuscitation to normal blood pressure. These changes are associated with organ dysfunction, coagulopathy, and death. However, the pathophysiology is not well understood. Several possible pathways could also contribute to the development of trauma-induced coagulopathy (TIC). A small-animal model of trauma-related MBF derangement that persists after resuscitation and includes TIC would facilitate further study. Parametric contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) is particularly advantageous in this setting, because it noninvasively assesses MBF in large, deep vascular beds. We sought to develop such a model, measuring MBF with CEUS. Methods: Sixteen male Sprague-Dawley rats were anesthetized, ventilated, and cannulated. Rats were subjected to either no injury (sham group) or a standardized polytrauma and pressure-targeted arterial catheter hemorrhage with subsequent whole blood resuscitation (trauma group). At prespecified time points, CEUS measurements of uninjured quadriceps muscle, viscoelastic blood clot strength, and complete blood counts were taken. Results: After resuscitation, blood pressure normalized, but MBF decreased and remained low for the rest of the protocol. This was primarily driven by a decrease in blood volume with a relative sparing of blood velocity. Viscoelastic blood clot strength and platelet count also decreased and remained low throughout the protocol. Conclusion: We present a rat model of MBF derangement in uninjured skeletal muscle and coagulopathy after polytrauma that persists after resuscitation with whole blood to normal macrohemodynamics. Parametric CEUS analysis shows that this change is primarily due to microvascular obstruction. This platform can be used to develop a deeper understanding of this important process.

Mechanisms and management of the coagulopathy of trauma and sepsis: trauma-induced coagulopathy, sepsis-induced coagulopathy, and disseminated intravascular coagulation

Disseminated intravascular coagulation can occur due to different causes but commonly following sepsis. Trauma-induced coagulopathy (TIC) occurs on hospital arrival in approximately 25% of seriously injured patients who initially presents with impaired hemostasis and a bleeding phenotype that can later progress to a prothrombotic phase. Following traumatic injury, ineffective hemostasis is driven by massive blood loss, tissue damage, and hyperfibrinolysis. This initial impaired hemostasis continues until surgical or other management strategies not only to stop the causes of hemorrhage but also progresses to a prothrombotic and hypofibrinolytic state, also termed fibrinolytic shutdown. Prothrombotic progression is also promoted by inflammatory mediator release, endothelial injury, and platelet dysregulation, which is commonly seen in sepsis with increased mortality. Unlike TIC, the early phase of sepsis is frequently complicated by multiorgan dysfunction described as sepsis-induced coagulopathy (SIC) that lacks a hemorrhagic phase. The phenotypes of SIC and TIC are different, especially in their initial presentations; however, patients who survive TIC may also develop subsequent infections and potentially sepsis and SIC. Although the pathophysiology of SIC and TIC are different, endothelial injury, dysregulated fibrinolysis, and coagulation abnormalities are common. Management includes treatment of the underlying cause, tissue injury vs infection is critical, and supportive therapies, such as hemostatic resuscitation and circulatory support are essential, and adjunct therapies are recommended in guidelines. Based on clinical studies and certain guidelines, additional therapies include tranexamic acid in the limited timing of initial traumatic injury and anticoagulants, such as antithrombin and recombinant thrombomodulin in disseminated intravascular coagulation.

The impact of vascular endothelial glycocalyx on the pathogenesis and treatment of disseminated intravascular coagulation

Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) is a complex disorder characterized by widespread activation of blood clotting mechanisms throughout the body. Understanding the role of vascular endothelial glycocalyx in the pathogenesis and treatment of DIC is crucial for advancing our knowledge in this field. The vascular endothelial glycocalyx is a gel-like layer that coats the inner surface of blood vessels. It plays a significant role in maintaining vascular integrity, regulating fluid balance, and preventing excessive clotting. In the pathogenesis of DIC, the disruption of the vascular endothelial glycocalyx is a key factor. Pathological conditions trigger the activation of enzymes, including heparanase, hyaluronase, and matrix metalloproteinase. This activation leads to glycocalyx degradation, subsequently exposing endothelial cells to procoagulant stimuli. Additionally, the ANGPTs/Tie-2 signaling pathway plays a role in the imbalance between the synthesis and degradation of VEG, exacerbating endothelial dysfunction and DIC. Understanding the mechanisms behind glycocalyx degradation and its impact on DIC can provide valuable insights for the development of targeted therapies. Preservation of the glycocalyx integrity may help prevent the initiation and propagation of DIC. Strategies such as administration of exogenous glycocalyx components, anticoagulant agents, or Tie-2 antibody agents have shown promising results in experimental models. In conclusion, the vascular endothelial glycocalyx plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis and treatment of DIC. Further research in this field is warranted to unravel the complex interactions between the glycocalyx and DIC, ultimately leading to the development of novel therapies.

Resuscitation-associated endotheliopathy (RAsE): a conceptual framework based on a systematic review and meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

Shock-induced endotheliopathy (SHINE), defined as a profound sympathoadrenal hyperactivation in shock states leading to endothelial activation, glycocalyx damage, and eventual compromise of end-organ perfusion, was first described in 2017. The aggressive resuscitation therapies utilised in treating shock states could potentially lead to further worsening endothelial activation and end-organ dysfunction.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to systematically review the literature on resuscitation-associated and resuscitation-induced endotheliopathy.

METHODS

A predetermined structured search of literature published over an 11-year and 6-month period (1 January 2011 to 31 July 2023) was performed in two indexed databases (PubMed/MEDLINE and Embase) per PRISMA guidelines. Inclusion was restricted to original studies published in English (or with English translation) reporting on endothelial dysfunction in critically ill human subjects undergoing resuscitation interventions. Reviews or studies conducted in animals were excluded. Qualitative synthesis of studies meeting the inclusion criteria was performed. Studies reporting comparable biomarkers of endothelial dysfunction post-resuscitation were included in the quantitative meta-analysis.

RESULTS

Thirty-two studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in the final qualitative synthesis. Most of these studies (47%) reported on a combination of mediators released from endothelial cells and biomarkers of glycocalyx breakdown, while only 22% reported on microvascular flow changes. Only ten individual studies were included in the quantitative meta-analysis based on the comparability of the parameters assessed. Eight studies measured syndecan-1, with a heterogeneity index, I2 = 75.85% (pooled effect size, mean = 0.27; 95% CI - 0.07 to 0.60; p = 0.12). Thrombomodulin was measured in four comparable studies (I2 = 78.93%; mean = 0.41; 95% CI - 0.10 to 0.92; p = 0.12). Three studies measured E-selectin (I2 = 50.29%; mean =  - 0.15; 95% CI - 0.64 to 0.33; p = 0.53), and only two were comparable for the microvascular flow index, MFI (I2 = 0%; mean =  - 0.80; 95% CI - 1.35 to - 0.26; p < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Resuscitation-associated endotheliopathy (RAsE) refers to worsening endothelial dysfunction resulting from acute resuscitative therapies administered in shock states. In the included studies, syndecan-1 had the highest frequency of assessment in the post-resuscitation period, and changes in concentrations showed a statistically significant effect of the resuscitation. There are inadequate data available in this area, and further research and standardisation of the ideal assessment and panel of biomarkers are urgently needed.

The sublingual microcirculation and frailty index in chronic kidney disease patients

OBJECTIVE

To examine the relationship between sublingual microcirculatory measures and frailty index in those attending a kidney transplant assessment clinic.

METHODS

Patients recruited had their sublingual microcirculation taken using sidestream dark field videomicroscopy (MicroScan, Micro Vision Medical, Amsterdam, the Netherlands) and their frailty index score using a validated short form via interview.

RESULTS

A total of 44 patients were recruited with two being excluded due to microcirculatory image quality scores exceeding 10. The frailty index score indicated significant correlations with total vessel density (p < .0001, r = -.56), microvascular flow index (p = .004, r = -.43), portion of perfused vessels (p = .0004, r = -.52), heterogeneity index (p = .015, r = .32), and perfused vessel density (p < .0001, r = -.66). No correlation was shown between the frailty index and age (p = .08, r = .27).

CONCLUSIONS

There is a relationship between the frailty index and microcirculatory health in those attending a kidney transplant assessment clinic, that is not confounded by age. These findings suggest that the impaired microcirculation may be an underlying cause of frailty.

Advances in trauma care to save lives from traumatic injury: A narrative review

ABSTRACT

Recent advances on trauma management from the prehospital setting to in hospital care led to a better surviving severe trauma rate. Mortality from exsanguination remains the first preventable mortality. Damage-control resuscitation and surgery are evolving and thus some promising concepts are developing. Transfusion toolkit is brought on the prehospital scene while temporary bridge to hemostasis may be helpful. Panel transfusion products allow an individualized ratio assumed by fresh frozen or lyophilized plasma, fresh or cold-stored whole blood, fibrinogen, four-factor prothrombin complex concentrates. Growing interest is raising in whole blood transfusion, resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta use, hybrid emergency room, viscoelastic hemostatic assays to improve patient outcomes. Microcirculation, traumatic endotheliopathy, organ failures and secondary immunosuppression are point out since late deaths are increasing and may deserve specific treatment.As each trauma patient follows his own course over the following days after trauma, trauma management may be seen through successive, temporal, and individualized aims.

The effect of tetrastarch on the endothelial glycocalyx layer in early hemorrhagic shock using fluorescence intravital microscopy: a mouse model

PURPOSE

To investigate vascular endothelial dysfunction based on glycocalyx impairment in massive hemorrhage and to evaluate fluid therapy.

METHODS

In this randomized controlled animal study, we withdrew 1.5 mL blood and administered 1.5 mL resuscitation fluid. Mice were divided into six groups according to the infusion type and administration timing: NS-NS (normal saline), NS-HES ([hydroxyethyl starch]130), HES-NS, NS-ALB (albumin), ALB-NS, and C (control) groups.

RESULTS

The glycocalyx index (GCXI) of a 40-μm artery was significantly larger in group C than in other groups (P < 0.01). Similarly, the GCXI for a 60-μm artery was significantly higher in group C than in NS-NS (P ≤ 0.05), NS-HES (P ≤ 0.01), and NS-ALB groups (P ≤ 0.05). The plasma syndecan-1 concentration, at 7.70 ± 5.71 ng/mL, was significantly lower in group C than in group NS-NS (P ≤ 0.01). The tetramethylrhodamine-labeled dextran (TMR-DEX40) fluorescence intensity in ALB-NS and HES-NS groups and the fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled hydroxyethyl starch (FITC-HES130) fluorescence intensity in NS-HES and HES-NS groups were not significantly different from those of group C at any time point. FITC-HES130 was localized on the inner vessel wall in groups without HES130 infusion but uniformly distributed in HES130-treated groups in intravital microscopy. FITC-FITC-HES130 was localized remarkably in the inner vessel walls in group HES-NS in electron microscopy.

CONCLUSIONS

In an acute massive hemorrhage mouse model, initial fluid resuscitation therapy with saline administration impaired glycocalyx and increased vascular permeability. Prior colloid-fluid administration prevented the progression of glycocalyx damage and improve prognosis. Prior HES130 administration may protect endothelial cell function.

Trajectory of plasma syndecan-1 and heparan sulphate during major surgery: A retrospective observational study

BACKGROUND

Surgical trauma-induced inflammation during major surgery may disrupt endothelial integrity and affect plasma concentrations of glycocalyx constituents, such as syndecan-1 and heparan sulphate. To date, no studies have focused on their perioperative temporal changes.

METHODS

As part of a trial, we obtained plasma and urine specimens sampled during the perioperative period in 72 patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. The plasma concentration of syndecan-1 and heparan sulphate was measured on five occasions, from baseline to the second postoperative day. Plasma and urinary creatinine and urinary syndecan-1 concentrations were measured before surgery and on the first postoperative morning.

RESULTS

We observed three different temporal patterns of plasma syndecan-1 concentration. Group 1 'low' (64% of patients) showed only minor changes from baseline despite a median heparan sulphate increase of 67% (p < .005). Group 2 'increase' (21% of patients) showed a marked increase in median plasma syndecan-1 from 27 μg/L to 118 μg/L during the first postoperative day (p < .001) with a substantial (+670%; p < .005) increase in median plasma heparan sulphate from 279 to 2196 μg/L. Group 3 'high' (14% of patients) showed a constant elevation of plasma syndecan-1 to >100 μg/L, but low heparan sulphate levels. The plasma C-reactive protein concentration did not differ across the three groups and 90% of colon surgeries occurred in Group 1. Treatment with dexamethasone was similar across the three groups. Surgical blood loss, duration of surgery and liver resection were greatest in Group 2.

CONCLUSION

Changes in syndecan-1 and heparan sulphate after surgery appear to show three different patterns, with the greatest increases in those patients with greater blood loss, more liver surgery and longer operations. These observations suggest that increases in syndecan-1 and heparan sulphate reflect the degree of surgical injury.

Management of Hemorrhagic Shock: Physiology Approach, Timing and Strategies

Hemorrhagic shock (HS) management is based on a timely, rapid, definitive source control of bleeding/s and on blood loss replacement. Stopping the hemorrhage from progressing from any named and visible vessel is the main stem fundamental praxis of efficacy and effectiveness and an essential, obligatory, life-saving step. Blood loss replacement serves the purpose of preventing ischemia/reperfusion toxemia and optimizing tissue oxygenation and microcirculation dynamics. The "physiological classification of HS" dictates the timely management and suits the 'titrated hypotensive resuscitation' tactics and the 'damage control surgery' strategy. In any hypotensive but not yet critical shock, the body's response to a fluid load test determines the cut-off point between compensation and progression between the time for adopting conservative treatment and preparing for surgery or rushing to the theater for rapid bleeding source control. Up to 20% of the total blood volume is given to refill the unstressed venous return volume. In any critical level of shock where, ab initio, the patient manifests signs indicating critical physiology and impending cardiac arrest or cardiovascular accident, the balance between the life-saving reflexes stretched to the maximum and the insufficient distal perfusion (blood, oxygen, and substrates) remains in a liable and delicate equilibrium, susceptible to any minimal change or interfering variable. In a cardiac arrest by exsanguination, the core of the physiological issue remains the rapid restoration of a sufficient venous return, allowing the heart to pump it back into systemic circulation either by open massage via sternotomy or anterolateral thoracotomy or spontaneously after aorta clamping in the chest or in the abdomen at the epigastrium under extracorporeal resuscitation and induced hypothermia. This is the only way to prevent ischemic damage to the brain and the heart. This is accomplishable rapidly and efficiently only by a direct approach, which is a crush laparotomy if the bleeding is coming from an abdominal +/- lower limb site or rapid sternotomy/anterolateral thoracotomy if the bleeding is coming from a chest +/- upper limbs site. Without first stopping the bleeding and refilling the heart, any further exercise is doomed to failure. Direct source control via laparotomy/thoracotomy, with the concomitant or soon following venous refilling, are the two essential, initial life-saving steps.

Shock-Driven Endotheliopathy in Trauma Patients Is Associated with Leucocyte Derived Extracellular Vesicles

Endotheliopathy following trauma is associated with poor outcome, but the underlying mechanisms are unknown. This study hypothesized that an increased extracellular vesicle (EV) concentration is associated with endotheliopathy after trauma and that red blood cell (RBC) transfusion could further enhance endotheliopathy. In this post hoc sub study of a multicentre observational trial, 75 trauma patients were stratified into three groups based on injury severity score or shock. In patient plasma obtained at hospital admission and after transfusion of four RBC transfusions, markers for endotheliopathy were measured and EVs were labelled with anti CD41 (platelet EVs), anti CD235a (red blood cell EVs), anti CD45 (leucocyte EVs), anti CD144 (endothelial EVs) or anti CD62e (activated endothelial EVs) and EV concentrations were measured with flow cytometry. Statistical analysis was performed by a Kruskall Wallis test with Bonferroni correction or Wilcoxon rank test for paired data. In patients with shock, syndecan-1 and von Willebrand Factor (vWF) were increased compared to patients without shock. Additionally, patients with shock had increased red blood cell EV and leucocyte EV concentrations compared to patients without shock. Endotheliopathy markers correlated with leucocyte EVs (ρ = 0.263, p = 0.023), but not with EVs derived from other cells. Injury severity score had no relation with EV release. RBC transfusion increased circulating red blood cell EVs but did not impact endotheliopathy. In conclusion, shock is (weakly) associated with EVs from leucocytes, suggesting an immune driven pathway mediated (at least in part) by shock.

Endothelial Damage and the Microcirculation in Critical Illness

Endothelial integrity maintains microcirculatory flow and tissue oxygen delivery. The endothelial glycocalyx is involved in cell signalling, coagulation and inflammation. Our ability to treat critically ill and septic patients effectively is determined by understanding the underpinning biological mechanisms. Many mechanisms govern the development of sepsis and many large trials for new treatments have failed to show a benefit. Endothelial dysfunction is possibly one of these biological mechanisms. Glycocalyx damage is measured biochemically. Novel microscopy techniques now mean the glycocalyx can be indirectly visualised, using sidestream dark field imaging. How the clinical visualisation of microcirculation changes relate to biochemical laboratory measurements of glycocalyx damage is not clear. This article reviews the evidence for a relationship between clinically evaluable microcirculation and biological signal of glycocalyx disruption in various diseases in ICU. Microcirculation changes relate to biochemical evidence of glycocalyx damage in some disease states, but results are highly variable. Better understanding and larger studies of this relationship could improve phenotyping and personalised medicine in the future. Damage to the glycocalyx could underpin many critical illness pathologies and having real-time information on the glycocalyx and microcirculation in the future could improve patient stratification, diagnosis and treatment.

Glycocalyx degradation and the endotheliopathy of viral infection

The endothelial glycocalyx (EGX) contributes to the permeability barrier of vessels and regulates the coagulation cascade. EGX damage, which occurs in numerous disease states, including sepsis and trauma, results in endotheliopathy. While influenza and other viral infections are known to cause endothelial dysfunction, their effect on the EGX has not been described. We hypothesized that the H1N1 influenza virus would cause EGX degradation. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were exposed to varying multiplicities of infection (MOI) of the H1N1 strain of influenza virus for 24 hours. A dose-dependent effect was examined by using an MOI of 5 (n = 541), 15 (n = 714), 30 (n = 596), and 60 (n = 653) and compared to a control (n = 607). Cells were fixed and stained with FITC-labelled wheat germ agglutinin to quantify EGX. There was no difference in EGX intensity after exposure to H1N1 at an MOI of 5 compared to control (6.20 vs. 6.56 Arbitrary Units (AU), p = 0.50). EGX intensity was decreased at an MOI of 15 compared to control (5.36 vs. 6.56 AU, p<0.001). The degree of EGX degradation was worse at higher doses of the H1N1 virus; however, the decrease in EGX intensity was maximized at an MOI of 30. Injury at MOI of 60 was not worse than MOI of 30. (4.17 vs. 4.47 AU, p = 0.13). The H1N1 virus induces endothelial dysfunction by causing EGX degradation in a dose-dependent fashion. Further studies are needed to characterize the role of this EGX damage in causing clinically significant lung injury during acute viral infection.

Endothelial Glycocalyx Degradation in Critical Illness and Injury

The endothelial glycocalyx is a gel-like layer on the luminal side of blood vessels that is composed of glycosaminoglycans and the proteins that tether them to the plasma membrane. Interest in its properties and function has grown, particularly in the last decade, as its importance to endothelial barrier function has come to light. Endothelial glycocalyx studies have revealed that many critical illnesses result in its degradation or removal, contributing to endothelial dysfunction and barrier break-down. Loss of the endothelial glycocalyx facilitates the direct access of immune cells and deleterious agents (e.g., proteases and reactive oxygen species) to the endothelium, that can then further endothelial cell injury and dysfunction leading to complications such as edema, and thrombosis. Here, we briefly describe the endothelial glycocalyx and the primary components thought to be directly responsible for its degradation. We review recent literature relevant to glycocalyx damage in several critical illnesses (sepsis, COVID-19, trauma and diabetes) that share inflammation as a common denominator with actions by several common agents (hyaluronidases, proteases, reactive oxygen species, etc.). Finally, we briefly cover strategies and therapies that show promise in protecting or helping to rebuild the endothelial glycocalyx such as steroids, protease inhibitors, anticoagulants and resuscitation strategies.

Targeting repair of the vascular endothelium and glycocalyx after traumatic injury with plasma and platelet resuscitation

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Endothelial glycocalyx shedding is a key instigator of the endotheliopathy of trauma.

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Plasma and platelet transfusions preserve vascular integrity in pre-clinical models.

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However, platelets may be less effective than plasma in preserving the glycocalyx.

Severely injured patients with hemorrhagic shock can develop endothelial dysfunction, systemic inflammation, and coagulation disturbances collectively known as the endotheliopathy of trauma (EOT). Shedding of the endothelial glycocalyx occurs early after injury, contributes to breakdown of the vascular barrier, and plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of multiple organ dysfunction, leading to poor outcomes in trauma patients. In this review we discuss (i) the pathophysiology of endothelial glycocalyx and vascular barrier breakdown following hemorrhagic shock and trauma, and (ii) the role of plasma and platelet transfusion in maintaining the glycocalyx and vascular endothelial integrity.

Plasma components to protect the endothelial barrier after shock: A role for sphingosine 1-phosphate

BACKGROUND

Hemorrhagic shock leads to endothelial glycocalyx shedding, endothelial cellular inflammation, and increased vascular permeability. Early plasma administration improves survival in severely injured patients; this may be due in part to its ability to ameliorate this trauma-induced endotheliopathy. The protective effect of early plasma administration may be due to its sphingosine 1-phosphate content. Principle carriers of plasma sphingosine 1-phosphate include apolipoprotein M and albumin. The relative roles of these carriers on sphingosine 1-phosphate protective effects are unknown and were studied in an in vitro model of microcirculation.

METHODS

Endothelial cell monolayers were established in microfluidic perfusion devices and exposed to control or biomimetic shock conditions. Sphingosine 1-phosphate, albumin + sphingosine 1-phosphate, or apolipoprotein M + sphingosine 1-phosphate were added later to the perfusate. Biomarkers of endothelial and glycocalyx activation and damage were then determined.

RESULTS

Sphingosine 1-phosphate preserved endothelial and glycocalyx barrier function after exposure to conditions of shock in the microcirculation. The protective effect was related to sphingosine 1-phosphate chaperones; the apolipoprotein M loaded with sphingosine 1-phosphate had the most profound effect.

CONCLUSION

Carrier-based sphingosine 1-phosphate may be a useful adjunct in early hemorrhagic shock resuscitation.

Vascular Endothelial Glycocalyx Plays a Role in the Obesity Paradox According to Intravital Observation

According to the “obesity paradox,” for severe conditions, individuals with obesity may be associated with a higher survival rate than those who are lean. However, the physiological basis underlying the mechanism of the obesity paradox remains unknown. We hypothesize that the glycocalyx in obese mice is thicker and more resistant to inflammatory stress than that in non-obese mice. In this study, we employed intravital microscopy to elucidate the differences in the vascular endothelial glycocalyx among three groups of mice fed diets with different fat concentrations. Male C57BL/6N mice were divided into three diet groups: low-fat (fat: 10% kcal), medium-fat (fat: 45% kcal), and high-fat (fat: 60% kcal) diet groups. Mice were fed the respective diet from 3 weeks of age, and a chronic cranial window was installed at 8 weeks of age. At 9 weeks of age, fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled wheat germ agglutinin was injected to identify the glycocalyx layer, and brain pial microcirculation was observed within the cranial windows. We randomly selected arterioles of diameter 15–45 μm and captured images. The mean index of the endothelial glycocalyx was calculated using image analysis and defined as the glycocalyx index. The glycocalyx indexes of the high-fat and medium-fat diet groups were significantly higher than those of the low-fat diet group (p < 0.05). There was a stronger positive correlation between vessel diameter and glycocalyx indexes in the high-fat and medium-fat diet groups than in the low-fat diet group. The glycocalyx indexes of the non-sepsis model in the obese groups were higher than those in the control group for all vessel diameters, and the positive correlation was also stronger. These findings indicate that the index of the original glycocalyx may play an important role in the obesity paradox.

A biomimetic shock model on the effect of endothelial aging on vascular barrier properties

BACKGROUND

Aging is characterized by a decline in cellular function, which has an adverse effect on the biologic response to injury. Both aging and trauma/hemorrhagic shock (T/HS) increase oxidative stress which impairs the vascular endothelium (EC) and glycocalyx (EG). The additive effect of aging on EC and EG damage following T/HS are unknown. This was studied in an in vitro model.

METHODS

Confluent endothelial cell monolayers from primary aortic endothelial cells from 10-week-old mice ("young" cells) or primary aortic cells from 65-week-old mice ("aged" cells) were established in microfluidic devices (MFDs) and perfused at constant shear conditions overnight. Mouse endothelial cell monolayers were then exposed to hypoxia/reoxygenation alone and/or epinephrine or norepinephrine. Endothelial glycocalyx degradation was indexed as well as subsequent endothelial injury/activation.

RESULTS

Aged endothelial cells showed increase glycocalyx shedding and subsequent loss of glycocalyx thickness. This lead to a more pronounced level of EC injury/activation compared with young endothelial cells. Although exposure to biomimetic shock conditions exacerbated both endothelial glycocalyx shedding and endothelial injury in both aged and young endothelial cells, the effect was significantly more pronounced in aged cells.

CONCLUSION

Advanced age is associated with worse outcomes in severely injured trauma patients. Our study demonstrates that there is increased EG shedding and a diminished EG layer in aged compared to "young" endothelial cell layers. Biomimetic shock conditions lead to an even greater impairment of the endothelial glycocalyx in aged versus young endothelial cell monolayers. It appears that these effects are a consequence of aging related oxidative stress at both baseline and shock conditions. This exacerbates shock-induced endotheliopathy and may contribute to untoward effects on patient outcomes in this population.

Pulmonary vascular system: A vulnerable target for COVID-19

The number of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) cases has been increasing significantly, and the disease has evolved into a global pandemic, posing an unprecedented challenge to the healthcare community. Angiotensin‐converting enzyme 2, the binding and entry receptor of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) in hosts, is also expressed on pulmonary vascular endothelium; thus, pulmonary vasculature is a potential target in COVID‐19. Indeed, pulmonary vascular thickening is observed by early clinical imaging, implying a tropism of SARS‐CoV‐2 for pulmonary vasculature. Recent studies reported that COVID‐19 is associated with vascular endothelial damage and dysfunction along with inflammation, coagulopathy, and microthrombosis; all of these pathologic changes are the hallmarks of pulmonary vascular diseases. Notwithstanding the not fully elucidated effects of COVID‐19 on pulmonary vasculature, the vascular endotheliopathy that occurs after infection is attributed to direct infection and indirect damage mainly caused by renin‐angiotensin‐aldosterone system imbalance, coagulation cascade, oxidative stress, immune dysregulation, and intussusceptive angiogenesis. Degradation of endothelial glycocalyx exposes endothelial cell (EC) surface receptors to the vascular lumen, which renders pulmonary ECs more susceptible to SARS‐CoV‐2 infection. The present article reviews the potential pulmonary vascular pathophysiology and clinical presentations in COVID‐19 to provide a basis for clinicians and scientists, providing insights into the development of therapeutic strategies targeting pulmonary vasculature.

Pathophysiology of Trauma-Induced Coagulopathy

There is no standard definition for trauma-induced coagulopathy (TIC). However, it could be defined as an abnormal hemostatic response secondary to trauma. The terms "early TIC" and "late TIC" have been recently suggested. "Early TIC" would refer to the inability to achieve effective hemostasis exacerbating an uncontrolled bleeding in a shocked patient with ischemia-reperfusion damage (bleeding phenotype) and takes place usually early after injury, whereas "late TIC" would represent a hypercoagulable state after surviving a severe tissue injury, that would contribute to thromboembolic events and multiorgan failure (MOF), (thrombotic phenotype), occurring typically hours after the trauma insult though it could be delayed for days. In addition, severe tissue injury when there is no associated shock could be followed by an early hypercoagulable state, representing an evolutionary maladaptive response of a physiologic mechanism created to increase clot formation and prevent bleeding. Therefore, TIC is not a uniform phenotype, ranging from bleeding to pro-thrombotic profiles. This current concept of TIC is mainly based on the recognition of TIC as a unique clotting disorder following trauma in which alterations in the endothelial function, fibrinolysis regulation and platelet behavior after major trauma are the main cornerstones.

Endothelial glycocalyx in traumatic brain injury associated coagulopathy: potential mechanisms and impact

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) remains one of the leading causes of death and disability worldwide; more than 10 million people are hospitalized for TBI every year around the globe. While the primary injury remains unavoidable and not accessible to treatment, the secondary injury which includes oxidative stress, inflammation, excitotoxicity, but also complicating coagulation abnormalities, is potentially avoidable and profoundly affects the therapeutic process and prognosis of TBI patients. The endothelial glycocalyx, the first line of defense against endothelial injury, plays a vital role in maintaining the delicate balance between blood coagulation and anticoagulation. However, this component is highly vulnerable to damage and also difficult to examine. Recent advances in analytical techniques have enabled biochemical, visual, and computational investigation of this vascular component. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on (i) structure and function of the endothelial glycocalyx, (ii) its potential role in the development of TBI associated coagulopathy, and (iii) the options available at present for detecting and protecting the endothelial glycocalyx.

Microcirculatory, Endothelial, and Inflammatory Responses in Critically Ill Patients With COVID-19 Are Distinct From Those Seen in Septic Shock: A Case Control Study

ABSTRACT

Critically ill patients with COVID-19 infection frequently exhibit a hyperinflammatory response and develop organ failures; however, the underlying mechanisms are unclear. We investigated the microcirculatory, endothelial, and inflammatory responses in critically ill COVID-19 patients and compared them to a group of patients with septic shock in a prospective observational case control study. Thirty critically ill patients with COVID-19 were compared to 33 patients with septic shock.Measurements of sublingual microcirculatory flow using Incident Dark Field video-microscopy and serial measurements of IL-6 and Syndecan-1 levels were performed. COVID-19 patients had significantly less vasoactive drug requirement and lower plasma lactate than those with septic shock. Microcirculatory flow was significantly worse in septic patients than those with COVID-19 (MFI 2.6 vs 2.9 p 0.02, PPV 88 vs 97% P < 0.001). IL-6 was higher in patients with septic shock than COVID-19 (1653 vs 253 pg/mL, P 0.03). IL-6 levels in COVID 19 patients were not elevated compared to healthy controls except on the day of ICU admission. Syndecan-1 levels were not different between the two pathological groups. Compared to patients with undifferentiated septic shock an overt shock state with tissue hypoperfusion does not appear typical of COVID-19 infection. There was no evidence of significant sublingual microcirculatory impairment, widespread endothelial injury or marked inflammatory cytokine release in this group of critically ill COVID-19 patients.

Human glycocalyx shedding: Systematic review and critical appraisal

BACKGROUND

The number of studies measuring breakdown products of the glycocalyx in plasma has increased rapidly during the past decade. The purpose of the present systematic review was to assess the current knowledge concerning the association between plasma concentrations of glycocalyx components and structural assessment of the endothelium.

METHODS

We performed a literature review of Pubmed to determine which glycocalyx components change in a wide variety of human diseases and conditions. We also searched for evidence of a relationship between plasma concentrations and the thickness of the endothelial glycocalyx layer as obtained by imaging methods.

RESULTS

Out of 3,454 publications, we identified 228 that met our inclusion criteria. The vast majority demonstrate an increase in plasma glycocalyx products. Sepsis and trauma are most frequently studied, and comprise approximately 40 publications. They usually report 3-4-foldt increased levels of glycocalyx degradation products, most commonly of syndecan-1. Surgery shows a variable picture. Cardiac surgery and transplantations are most likely to involve elevations of glycocalyx degradation products. Structural assessment using imaging methods show thinning of the endothelial glycocalyx layer in cardiovascular conditions and during major surgery, but thinning does not always correlate with the plasma concentrations of glycocalyx products. The few structural assessments performed do not currently support that capillary permeability is increased when the plasma levels of glycocalyx fragments in plasma are increased.

CONCLUSIONS

Shedding of glycocalyx components is a ubiquitous process that occurs during both acute and chronic inflammation with no sensitivity or specificity for a specific disease or condition.

Mismatch between Tissue Partial Oxygen Pressure and Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Neuromonitoring of Tissue Respiration in Acute Brain Trauma: The Rationale for Implementing a Multimodal Monitoring Strategy

The brain tissue partial oxygen pressure (PbtO₂) and near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) neuromonitoring are frequently compared in the management of acute moderate and severe traumatic brain injury patients; however, the relationship between their respective output parameters flows from the complex pathogenesis of tissue respiration after brain trauma. NIRS neuromonitoring overcomes certain limitations related to the heterogeneity of the pathology across the brain that cannot be adequately addressed by local-sample invasive neuromonitoring (e.g., PbtO₂ neuromonitoring, microdialysis), and it allows clinicians to assess parameters that cannot otherwise be scanned. The anatomical co-registration of an NIRS signal with axial imaging (e.g., computerized tomography scan) enhances the optical signal, which can be changed by the anatomy of the lesions and the significance of the radiological assessment. These arguments led us to conclude that rather than aiming to substitute PbtO₂ with tissue saturation, multiple types of NIRS should be included via multimodal systemic- and neuro-monitoring, whose values then are incorporated into biosignatures linked to patient status and prognosis. Discussion on the abnormalities in tissue respiration due to brain trauma and how they affect the PbtO₂ and NIRS neuromonitoring is given.

Obesity and impaired barrier function after shock: A biomimetic in vitro model using microfluidics

BACKGROUND

Impaired microvascular perfusion in the obese patient has been linked to chronic adverse health consequences. The impact on acute illnesses including trauma, sepsis, and hemorrhagic shock (HS) is uncertain. Studies have shown that endothelial glycocalyx and vascular endothelial derangements are causally linked to perfusion abnormalities. Trauma and HS are also associated with impaired microvascular perfusion in which glycocalyx injury and endothelial dysfunction are sentinel events. We postulate that obesity may impact the adverse consequences of HS on the vascular barrier. This was studied in vivo in a biomimetic model of HS using microfluidic technology.

METHODS

Human umbilical vein endothelial cell monolayers were established in a microfluidic device. Cells were exposed to standard or biomimetic shock conditions (hypoxia plus epinephrine) followed by perfusion from plasma obtained from obese or nonobese subjects. Endothelial glycocalyx and endothelial cellular injury were then determined.

RESULTS

Plasma from nonobese patients completely reversed glycocalyx and endothelial vascular barrier injury. Plasma from obese patients was only partially protective and was associated with differences in adipokines and other substances in the plasma of these patients.

CONCLUSION

Our study supports that obesity impairs HS resuscitation. This may be due to microrheological differences between nonobese and obese individuals and may contribute to the poorer outcome in this patient population.

Neglected No More: Emerging Cellular Therapies in Traumatic Injury

Traumatic injuries are a leading cause of death and disability in both military and civilian populations. Given the complexity and diversity of traumatic injuries, novel and individualized treatment strategies are required to optimize outcomes. Cellular therapies have potential benefit for the treatment of acute or chronic injuries, and various cell-based pharmaceuticals are currently being tested in preclinical studies or in clinical trials. Cellular therapeutics may have the ability to complement existing therapies, especially in restoring organ function lost due to tissue disruption, prolonged hypoxia or inflammatory damage. In this article we highlight the current status and discuss future directions of cellular therapies for the treatment of traumatic injury. Both published research and ongoing clinical trials are discussed here.

Targeting Endothelial Dysfunction in Acute Critical Illness to Reduce Organ Failure

During hyperinflammatory conditions that can occur in acute critical illness, such as shock or hypoperfusion, inflammatory mediators activate the endothelium, fueling a proinflammatory host-response as well as procoagulant processes. These changes result in shedding of the glycocalyx, endothelial hyperpermeability, edema formation, and lead to disturbed microcirculatory perfusion and organ failure. Different fluid strategies that are used in shock may have differential effects on endothelial integrity. Collectively, low protein content fluids seem to have negative effects on the endothelial glycocalyx, aggravating endothelial hyperpermeability, whereas fluids containing albumin or plasma proteins may be superior to normal saline in protecting the glycocalyx and endothelial barrier function. Targeting the endothelium may be a therapeutic strategy to limit organ failure, which hitherto has not received much attention. Treatment targets aimed at restoring the endothelium should focus on maintaining glycocalyx function and/or targeting coagulation pathways or specific endothelial receptors. Potential treatments could be supplementing glycocalyx constituents or inhibiting glycocalyx breakdown. In this review, we summarize mechanisms of endothelial dysfunction during acute critical illness, such as the systemic inflammatory response, shedding of the glycocalyx, endothelial activation, and activation of coagulation. In addition, this review focuses on the effects of different fluid strategies on endothelial permeability. Also, potential mechanisms for treatment options to reduce endothelial hyperpermeability with ensuing organ failure are evaluated. Future research is needed to elucidate these pathways and to translate these data to the first human safety and feasibility trials.

Heparanase-enhanced Shedding of Syndecan-1 and Its Role in Driving Disease Pathogenesis and Progression

Both heparanase and syndecan-1 are known to be present and active in disease pathobiology. An important feature of syndecan-1 related to its role in pathologies is that it can be shed from the surface of cells as an intact ectodomain composed of the extracellular core protein and attached heparan sulfate and chondroitin sulfate chains. Shed syndecan-1 remains functional and impacts cell behavior both locally and distally from its cell of origin. Shedding of syndecan-1 is initiated by a variety of stimuli and accomplished predominantly by the action of matrix metalloproteinases. The accessibility of these proteases to the core protein of syndecan-1 is enhanced, and shedding facilitated, when the heparan sulfate chains of syndecan-1 have been shortened by the enzymatic activity of heparanase. Interestingly, heparanase also enhances shedding by upregulating the expression of matrix metalloproteinases. Recent studies have revealed that heparanase-induced syndecan-1 shedding contributes to the pathogenesis and progression of cancer and viral infection, as well as other septic and non-septic inflammatory states. This review discusses the heparanase/shed syndecan-1 axis in disease pathogenesis and progression, the potential of targeting this axis therapeutically, and the possibility that this axis is widespread and of influence in many diseases.

COVID-19-associated vasculitis and vasculopathy

The COVID-19 pandemic now totaling 13,000,000 cases and over 571,000 deaths has continued to teach the medical, scientific and lay communities about viral infectious disease in the modern era. Among the many lessons learned for the medical community is the potential for transmissibility and host infectivity of the SARS–CoV-2 virus. Moreover, it has become clear that the virus can affect any organ including the circulatory system, directly via either tissue tropism or indirectly stemming from inflammatory responses in the form of innate immunity, leukocyte debris such as cell-free DNA and histones and RNA viral particles. The following review considers COVID-19-associated vasculitis and vasculopathy as a defining feature of a virus-induced systemic disease with acute, subacute and potential chronic health implications.

The protective role of estrogen on endothelial and glycocalyx barriers after shock conditions: A microfluidic study

BACKGROUND

Sexual dimorphism has been demonstrated after major trauma and hemorrhage shock with protective effects related to female sex or estrogen. Traumatic endotheliopathy is an important component of trauma-induced coagulopathy. Components of endothelial barrier dysfunction include degradation of the endothelial glycocalyx and endothelial cellular injury. Estrogen modulates endothelial function via its membrane and cellular receptors. The effects of estrogen on the vascular endothelial barrier after trauma and hemorrhage shock are, however, unknown. This topic was studied in an in vitro model under flow conditions.

METHODS

Monolayers of human umbilical vein endothelial cells were established in microfluidic flow devices. After overnight perfusion, cell monolayers were subjected to normoxic or hypoxic perfusion and then treated with either estrogen (as estradiol), testosterone (as dihydrotestosterone), or media alone. Endothelial activation/injury was indexed by soluble thrombomodulin and glycocalyx degradation by syndecan-1 and hyaluronic acid shedding as well as measurement of the thickness of the glycocalyx layer. The coagulation phenotype of the human umbilical vein endothelial cells was indexed by the relative values of the activities of tissue plasminogen activator and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1. Vascular endothelial growth factor was measured in cell culture supernatants using a solid-phase enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

RESULTS

Treatment with estrogen but not testosterone mitigated the adverse effect of shock on endothelial and glycocalyx barrier properties. Our biomimetic model suggests a beneficial effect of estrogen administration after trauma and hemorrhage shock on the glycocalyx and endothelial barriers.

CONCLUSION

Early estrogen treatment after trauma and hemorrhage shock may be a useful adjunct to mitigating the development of traumatic endotheliopathy.

In vitro endothelial hyperpermeability occurs early following traumatic hemorrhagic shock

BACKGROUND

Endothelial hyperpermeability is suggested to play a role in the development of microcirculatory perfusion disturbances and organ failure following hemorrhagic shock, but evidence is limited.

OBJECTIVE

To study the effect of plasma from traumatic hemorrhagic shock patients on in vitro endothelial barrier function.

METHODS

Plasma from traumatic hemorrhagic shock patients was obtained at the emergency department (ED), the intensive care unit (ICU), 24 h after ICU admission and from controls (n = 8). Sublingual microcirculatory perfusion was measured using incident dark field videomicroscopy at matching time points. Using electric cell-substrate impedance sensing, the effects of plasma exposure on in vitro endothelial barrier function of human endothelial cells were assessed.

RESULTS

Plasma from traumatic hemorrhagic shock patients collected at ED admission induced a 19% loss of in vitro endothelial resistance compared to plasma from controls (p < 0.001). This loss was due to reduced cell-cell contacts (p < 0.01). Plasma withdrawn at later time points did not affect endothelial barrier function (p > 0.99). Interestingly, in vitro endothelial resistance showed a positive association with in vivo microcirculatory perfusion (r = 0.56, p < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Plasma from traumatic hemorrhagic shock patients obtained following ED admission, but not at later stages, induced in vitro endothelial hyperpermeability. This coincided with in vivo microcirculatory perfusion disturbances.

Glycocalyx damage biomarkers in healthy controls, abdominal surgery, and sepsis: a scoping review

OBJECTIVE

Despite wide interest in glycocalyx biomarkers, their values in healthy individuals, patients after abdominal surgery, and septic patients have been poorly understood.

METHODS

We searched MEDLINE, CENTRAL and EMBASE for papers measured glycocalyx biomarkers in healthy individuals, patients after abdominal surgery and septic patients.

RESULTS

We extracted 3948 titles and identified 58 eligible papers. Syndecan 1 was the most frequently measured biomarker (48 studies). Its mean or median value in healthy individuals varied to a biologically implausible degree, from 0.3 to 58.5 ng/ml, according to assay manufacturer. In post-operative patients, syndecan 1 levels increased after pancreatic surgery or liver surgery, however, they showed minor changes after hysterectomy or laparoscopic surgery. In septic patients, biomarker levels were higher than in healthy volunteers when using the same assay. However, six healthy volunteer studies reported higher syndecan 1 values than after pancreatic surgery and 24 healthy volunteer studies reported higher syndecan 1 values than the lowest syndecan 1 value in sepsis. Similar findings applied to other glycocalyx biomarkers.

CONCLUSION

Glycocalyx damage biomarkers values are essentially defined by syndecan 1. Syndecan 1 levels, however, are markedly affected by assay type and show biologically implausible values in normal, post-operative, or septic subjects.

Endothelial glycocalyx damage as a systemic inflammatory microvascular endotheliopathy in COVID-19

In atherosclerosis patients, vascular endothelial dysfunction is commonly observed alongside damage of the vascular endothelial glycocalyx, an extracellular matrix bound to and encapsulating the endothelial cells lining the blood vessel wall. Although atherosclerotic risk factors have been reported in severe patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the exact mechanisms are unclear. The mortality associated with the COVID-19 outbreak is increased by comorbidities, including hypertension, diabetes, obesity, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and cardiovascular disease. Besides, older individuals and smokers have significantly worse outcomes. Interestingly, these comorbidities and risk factors are consistent with the pathophysiology that causes vascular endothelial glycocalyx damage. Moreover, vascular glycocalyx dysfunction causes microvascular leakage, which results in interstitial pulmonary abnormal shadows (multiple patchy shadows with a ground glass inter-pneumonic appearance). This is frequently followed by severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), closely related to coagulo-fibrinolytic changes contributing to disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) and Kawasaki disease shock syndrome, as well as inducing activation of the coagulation cascade, leading to thromboembolism and multiple organ failure. Notably, SARS-CoV-2, the causative virus of COVID-19, binds to ACE2, which is abundantly present not only in human epithelia of the lung and the small intestine, but also in vascular endothelial cells and arterial smooth muscle cells. Moreover, COVID-19 can induce severe septic shock, and sepsis can easily lead to systemic degradation of the vascular endothelial glycocalyx. In the current review, we propose new concepts and therapeutic goals for COVID-19-related vascular endothelial glycocalyx damage, based on previous vascular endothelial medicine research.

Therapeutic interventions to restore microcirculatory perfusion following experimental hemorrhagic shock and fluid resuscitation: A systematic review

Objective

Microcirculatory perfusion disturbances following hemorrhagic shock and fluid resuscitation contribute to multiple organ dysfunction and mortality. Standard fluid resuscitation is insufficient to restore microcirculatory perfusion; however, additional therapies are lacking. We conducted a systematic search to provide an overview of potential non‐fluid‐based therapeutic interventions to restore microcirculatory perfusion following hemorrhagic shock.

Methods

A structured search of PubMed, EMBASE, and Cochrane Library was performed in March 2020. Animal studies needed to report at least one parameter of microcirculatory flow (perfusion, red blood cell velocity, functional capillary density).

Results

The search identified 1269 records of which 48 fulfilled all eligibility criteria. In total, 62 drugs were tested of which 29 were able to restore microcirculatory perfusion. Particularly, complement inhibitors (75% of drugs tested successfully restored blood flow), endothelial barrier modulators (100% successful), antioxidants (66% successful), drugs targeting cell metabolism (83% successful), and sex hormones (75% successful) restored microcirculatory perfusion. Other drugs consisted of attenuation of inflammation (100% not successful), vasoactive agents (68% not successful), and steroid hormones (75% not successful).

Conclusion

Improving mitochondrial function, inhibition of complement inhibition, and reducing microvascular leakage via restoration of endothelial barrier function seem beneficial to restore microcirculatory perfusion following hemorrhagic shock and fluid resuscitation.

Early Sequential Microcirculation Assessment In Shocked Patients as a Predictor of Outcome: A Prospective Observational Cohort Study

OBJECTIVES

A dysfunctional microcirculation is universal in shock and is often dissociated from global hemodynamic parameters. Persistent microcirculatory derangements reflect ongoing tissue hypoperfusion and organ injury. The initial microcirculatory dysfunction and subsequent resolution could potentially guide therapy and predict outcomes. We evaluated the microcirculation early in a heterogenous shocked population. Microcirculatory resolution was correlated with measures of tissue perfusion and global hemodynamics. The relationship between the microcirculation over 24 h and outcome were evaluated.

DESIGN

We prospectively recruited patients with all forms of shock, based on global hemodynamics and evidence of organ hypoperfusion.

SETTING

A 30-bed adult intensive care unit (ICU).

PATIENTS

Eighty-two shocked patients.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Following the diagnosis of shock, patients underwent a sublingual microcirculation examination using Sidestream Dark Field Imaging. The median age of patients was 66 years old (interquartile range [IQR] 54-71), with an Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II of 27 (IQR 20-32). Microcirculatory parameters included Percentage Perfused Vessels (PPV), De Backer Score, and a heterogeneity index in patients with septic shock, according to the second consensus guidelines Additional parameters collected: temperature, heart rate and arterial pressure, cumulative fluid balance, and vasopressor use. Arterial blood samples were taken at the time of microcirculatory assessments, providing HCO3, lactate concentrations, PaO2, and PaCO2 measurements. A statistically significant improvement in PPV and the heterogeneity index was demonstrated. This improvement was mirrored by biomarkers of perfusion; however, the global hemodynamic parameter changes were not significantly different over the 24-h period. The early microcirculatory improvement was not predictive of an improvement in acute kidney injury, length of stay, ICU, or hospital mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

Early sequential evaluation of the microcirculation in shocked patients, demonstrated statistically significant improvement in the PPV and microvascular heterogeneity with standard care. These improvements were mirrored by biomarkers of organ perfusion; however, the changes in global hemodynamics were not as pronounced in this early phase. Early improvement in the microcirculation did not predict clinical outcome.

Effect of Coagulation Factor Concentrates on Markers of Endothelial Cell Damage in Experimental Hemorrhagic Shock

BACKGROUND

Plasma-based resuscitation showed protective effects on the endothelial glycocalyx compared with crystalloid resuscitation. There is paucity of data regarding the effect of coagulation factor concentrates (CFC) on the glycocalyx in hemorrhagic shock (HS). We hypothesized that colloid-based resuscitation supplemented with CFCs offers a therapeutic value to treat endothelial damage following HS.

METHODS

Eighty-four rats were subjected to pressure-controlled (mean arterial pressure (MAP) 30-35 mm Hg) and lab-guided (targeted cutoff: lactate >2.2. mmol/L and base deficit > 5.5 mmol/L) HS. Animals were resuscitated with fresh frozen plasma (FFP), human albumin (HA) or Ringer's lactate (RL) and RL or HA supplemented with fibrinogen concentrate (FC) or prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC). Serum epinephrine and the following markers of endothelial damage were assessed at baseline and at the end-of-observation (120 min after shock was terminated): syndecan-1, heparan sulfate, and soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 1 (sVEGFR 1).

RESULTS

Resuscitation with FFP had no effect on sVEGFR1 compared with crystalloid-based resuscitation (FFP: 19.3 ng/mL vs. RL: 15.9 ng/mL; RL+FC: 19.7 ng/mL; RL+PCC: 18.9 ng/mL; n.s.). At the end-of-observation, syndecan-1 was similar among all groups. Interestingly, HA+FC treated animals displayed the highest syndecan-1 concentration (12.07 ng/mL). Resuscitation with FFP restored heparan sulfate back to baseline (baseline: 36 ng/mL vs. end-of-observation: 36 ng/mL).

CONCLUSION

The current study revealed that plasma-based resuscitation normalized circulating heparan sulfate but not syndecan-1. Co-administration of CFC had no further effect on glycocalyx shedding suggesting a lack of its therapeutic potential.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

VExperimental in vivo study.

Cerebral perfusion and blood-brain barrier assessment in brain trauma using contrast-enhanced near-infrared spectroscopy with indocyanine green: A review

Contrast-enhanced near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) with indocyanine green (ICG) can be a valid non-invasive, continuous, bedside neuromonitoring tool. However, its usage in moderate and severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients can be unprecise due to their clinical status. This review is targeted at researchers and clinicians involved in the development and application of contrast-enhanced NIRS for the care of TBI patients and can be used to design future studies. This review describes the methods developed to monitor the brain perfusion and the blood-brain barrier integrity using the changes of diffuse reflectance during the ICG passage and the results on studies in animals and humans. The limitations in accuracy of these methods when applied on TBI patients and the proposed solutions to overcome them are discussed. Finally, the analysis of relative parameters is proposed as a valid alternative over absolute values to address some current clinical needs in brain trauma care. In conclusion, care should be taken in the translation of the optical signal into absolute physiological parameters of TBI patients, as their clinical status must be taken into consideration. Discussion on where and how future studies should be directed to effectively incorporate contrast-enhanced NIRS into brain trauma care is given.

Superior Survival Outcomes of a Polyethylene Glycol-20k Based Resuscitation Solution in a Preclinical Porcine Model of Lethal Hemorrhagic Shock

OBJECTIVE

To compare early outcomes and 24-hour survival after LVR with the novel polyethylene glycol-20k-based crystalloid (PEG-20k), WB, or hextend in a preclinical model of lethal HS.

BACKGROUND

Posttraumatic HS is a major cause of preventable death. Current resuscitation strategies focus on restoring oxygen-carrying capacity (OCC) and coagulation with blood products. Our lab shows that PEG-20k is an effective non-sanguineous, LVR solution in acute models of HS through mechanisms targeting cell swelling-induced microcirculatory failure.

METHODS

Male pigs underwent splenectomy followed by controlled hemorrhage until lactate reached 7.5-8.5 mmol/L. They were randomized to receive LVR with PEG-20k, WB, or Hextend. Surviving animals were recovered 4 hours post-LVR. Outcomes included 24-hour survival rates, mean arterial pressure, lactate, hemoglobin, and estimated intravascular volume changes.

RESULTS

Twenty-four-hour survival rates were 100%, 16.7%, and 0% in the PEG-20k, WB, and Hextend groups, respectively (P = 0.001). PEG-20k significantly restored mean arterial press, intravascular volume, and capillary perfusion to baseline, compared to other groups. This caused complete lactate clearance despite decreased OCC. Neurological function was normal after next-day recovery in PEG-20k resuscitated pigs.

CONCLUSION

Superior early and 24-hour outcomes were observed with PEG-20k LVR compared to WB and Hextend in a preclinical porcine model of lethal HS, despite decreased OCC from substantial volume-expansion. These findings demonstrate the importance of enhancing microcirculatory perfusion in early resuscitation strategies.

Decreased endothelial glycocalyx thickness is an early predictor of mortality in sepsis

Microcirculatory alterations play an important role in the early phase of sepsis. Shedding of the endothelial glycocalyx is regarded as a central pathophysiological mechanism causing microvascular dysfunction, contributing to multiple organ failure and death in sepsis. The objective of this study was to investigate whether endothelial glycocalyx thickness at an early stage in septic patients relates to clinical outcome. We measured the perfused boundary region (PBR), which is inversely proportional to glycocalyx thickness, of sublingual microvessels (5-25 µm) using sidestream dark field imaging. The PBR in 21 patients with sepsis was measured within 24 h of admission to the intensive care unit (ICU). In addition, we determined plasma markers of microcirculatory dysfunction and studied their correlation with PBR and mortality. Endothelial glycocalyx thickness in sepsis was significantly lower for non-survivors as compared with survivors, indicated by a higher PBR of 1.97 [1.85, 2.19]µm compared with 1.76 [1.59, 1.97] µm, P=0.03. Admission PBR was associated with hospital mortality with an area under the curve of 0.778 based on the receiver operating characteristic curve. Furthermore, PBR correlated positively with angiopoietin-2 (rho=0.532, P=0.03), indicative of impaired barrier function. PBR did not correlate with Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation IV (APACHE IV), Sequential Organ Failure Assessment score (SOFA score), lactate, syndecan-1, angiopoietin-1 or heparin-binding protein. An increased PBR within the first 24 h after ICU admission is associated with mortality in sepsis. Further research should be aimed at the pathophysiological importance of glycocalyx shedding in the development of multi-organ failure and at therapies attempting to preserve glycocalyx integrity.

Inflammatory response in trauma patients: are there ways to decrease the inflammatory reaction?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Trauma patients are considered a complex population of patients in emergency medicine and need extensive, specialized therapy. One major part is the prevention and treatment of the inflammatory response, which occurs in patients after severe injury resulting in complications like endotheliopathy. Likely as a consequence, coagulopathy occurs. Sterile inflammation is hard to address, especially because of the lack of a single activator. Moreover, it is a complex composition of factors that lead to a pathologic immune response. Our understanding of these patterns is increasing, but the complete pathophysiologic changes have yet to be investigated. Therefore, there is no specific target to treat inflammatory response in trauma patients at the moment.

RECENT FINDINGS

There is increasing knowledge of the pathways and mediators that are responsible for the inflammatory response in patients after severe trauma. The endothelial glycocalyx has been identified to be an integral part of these mechanisms. There have been several new therapeutic approaches to diminish the inflammatory response.

SUMMARY

Our increasing understanding of the immune system have led to new potential therapeutic perspectives. All of these approaches need further research to be validated. As the current therapies are based on empirical strategies and have not changed much over the years, new treatment options would be an important progress.

Glycocalyx Degradation in Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

The glycocalyx is a layer coating the luminal surface of vascular endothelial cells. It is vital for endothelial function as it participates in microvascular reactivity, endothelium interaction with blood constituents, and vascular permeability. Structural and functional damage to glycocalyx occurs in various disease states. A prominent clinical situation characterized by glycocalyx derangement is ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) of the whole body as well as during selective I/R to organs such as the kidney, heart, lung, or liver. Degradation of the glycocalyx is now considered a cornerstone in I/R-related endothelial dysfunction, which further impairs local microcirculation with a feed-forward loop of organ damage, due to vasoconstriction, leukocyte adherence, and activation of the immune response. Glycocalyx damage during I/R is evidenced by rising plasma levels of its principal constituents, heparan sulfate and syndecan-1. By contrast, the concentrations of these compounds in the circulation decrease after successful protective interventions in I/R, suggesting their use as surrogate biomarkers of endothelial integrity. In light of the importance of the glycocalyx in preserving endothelial cell integrity and its involvement in pathologic conditions, several promising therapeutic strategies to restore the damaged glycocalyx and to attenuate its deleterious consequences have been suggested. This review focuses on alterations of glycocalyx during I/R injury in general (to vital organs in particular), and on maneuvers aimed at glycocalyx recovery during I/R injury.

Unfractionated heparin attenuates histone-mediated cytotoxicity in vitro and prevents intestinal microcirculatory dysfunction in histone-infused rats

BACKGROUND

Extracellular histones are major mediators of organ dysfunction and death in sepsis, and they may cause microcirculatory dysfunction. Heparins have beneficial effects in sepsis and have been reported to bind to histones and neutralize their cytotoxicity. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of histones on intestinal microcirculation and the intestinal endothelium and to discuss the protective effect of unfractionated heparin (UFH) on the endothelial cytotoxicity and microcirculatory dysfunction induced by histones.

METHODS

Anesthetized rats were infused with 30 mg/kg calf thymus histones, and UFH was administered intravenously at a concentration of 100 IU/kg per hour. The intestinal microcirculation was visualized and measured with incident dark field microscope. Plasma von Willebrand factor (vWF) and soluble thrombomodulin were detected, and structural changes in the rat intestinal microvascular endothelium were examined. The effects of histones and UFH on cell survival rates, vWF release and calcium influx were investigated in human intestinal microvascular endothelial cells (HIMECs).

RESULTS

Histone infusion caused severe intestinal microcirculatory dysfunction in the absence of obvious hemodynamic changes, and UFH protected intestinal microcirculation in histone-infused rats. Concentrations of the plasma endothelial injury markers vWF and soluble thrombomodulin were elevated, and structural abnormalities were found in the intestinal microvascular endothelium in the histone-infused rats. These events were attenuated by UFH. In vitro, UFH significantly reduced the histone-induced cytotoxicity of HIMECs, reduced the release of vWF from the cytoplasm into the culture medium, and inhibited calcium influx into HIMECs.

CONCLUSION

Histones induce intestinal microcirculatory dysfunction followed by direct injury to the endothelial cells; UFH protects the intestinal microcirculation partly by antagonizing the endothelial toxicity of histones.

Microvascular Dysfunction in the Critically Ill

Microvascular dysfunction is a frequent complication of many chronic and acute conditions, especially in the critically ill. Moreover, the severity of microvascular alterations is associated with development of organ dysfunction and poor outcome. The complexities and heterogeneity of critical illness, especially in the elderly patient, requires more mechanistically oriented clinical trials that monitor the effectiveness of existing therapies and of those to come. Recent advances in the ability to obtain physiologically based assessments of microcirculatory function at the bedside will make microcirculatory-guided resuscitation a point of care reality.