Emerging infectious encephalitides

Corticosteroids for viral central nervous system infections

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Viruses are frequent causes of central nervous system (CNS) infection. Lacking specific antiviral treatment or inadequate clinical response may lead to treatment with corticosteroids. This review describes the rationale for and clinical experience with the use of adjunctive corticosteroids for viral CNS infections.

RECENT FINDINGS

Corticosteroids display anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive, antiproliferative, and vasoconstrictive effects by genomic and nongenomic regulation of human cells. Recent population-based studies consistently show that empiric dexamethasone during diagnostic work-up for meningitis has neither been associated with improved outcome nor adverse effects in viral meningitis. Myelitis is most often due to noninfectious causes and standard empiric treatment includes high-dose methylprednisolone. There are no convincing data on viral myelitis to support a change of this approach. Corticosteroids have occasionally been employed in different types of viral encephalitis. Observational data and a few randomized clinical trials have not documented any substantial beneficial effects of adjunctive corticosteroids in viral encephalitis. Risks of harm with current treatment regimens remained low in published studies.

SUMMARY

Except for myelitis, there are no data to support routine use of corticosteroids for viral CNS infections. Large, multidisciplinary syndromic platform trials of all-cause encephalitis may be a viable way to inform treatment guidelines.

Infectious Encephalitis: A Persistent Clinical Challenge

Encephalitis is a serious neurologic condition that frequently results in long-term neurologic complications. Effective management in adults with suspected infectious encephalitis involves testing the cerebrospinal fluid for common pathogens, including herpes simplex virus-1, varicella-zoster virus, enteroviruses, and West Nile virus. Early initiation of high-dose intravenous acyclovir is recommended. Epidemiologic clues and immune status of the host should be considered when attempting to identify the cause of encephalitis. When no cause is identified, next-generation sequencing or a brain biopsy may be warranted. Further research should focus on developing new therapeutic options for this challenging clinical syndrome.

Development of an Eco-Friendly Nanogel Incorporating Pectis brevipedunculata Essential Oil as a Larvicidal Agent Against Aedes aegypti

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Arboviruses, transmitted by mosquitoes like Aedes aegypti, pose significant public health challenges globally, particularly in tropical regions. The rapid spread and adaptation of viruses such as Dengue, Zika, and Chikungunya have emphasized the need for innovative control methods. Essential oils from plants, such as Pectis brevipedunculata (Gardner) Sch.Bip. (Pb), have emerged as potential alternatives to conventional insecticides.

METHODS

In this work, we developed an eco-friendly nanogel using a low-energy, solvent-free method, incorporating the copolymer F127 and Carbopol 974p, enriched with a high concentration of essential oil from Pb (EOPb). The resulting nanogel displayed excellent physical stability, maintained under varying temperature conditions. Characterization techniques, including FTIR and DLS, confirmed the stable incorporation of EOPb within the nanogel matrix.

RESULTS

The in vitro assays against Aedes aegypti larvae revealed that at 500 μg/mL, the mortality rates were 96.0% ± 7.0 after 24 h and 100.0% ± 0.0 after 48 h. The positive control group treated with temefos, achieved 100% mortality at both time points, validating the experimental conditions and providing a benchmark for assessing the efficacy of the nGF2002Pb nanogel.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that nGF2002Pb demonstrates a pronounced concentration-dependent larvicidal effect against Aedes aegypti, offering an innovative and sustainable approach to arbovirus vector control.

Organotypic brain slices as a model to study the neurotropism of the highly pathogenic Nipah and Ebola viruses

Nipah virus (NiV) and Ebola virus (EBOV) are highly pathogenic zoonotic viruses with case fatality rates of up to 90%. While the brain is a known target organ following NiV infection, involvement of the central nervous system in EBOV-infected patients only became more evident after the West African epidemic in 2013-2016. To gain a deeper comprehension of the neurotropism of NiV and EBOV with respect to target cells, affected brain regions and local inflammatory responses, murine organotypic brain slices (BS) were established and infected. Both NiV and EBOV demonstrated the capacity to infect BS from adult wt mice and mice lacking the receptor for type I IFNs (IFNAR-/-) and targeted various cell types. NiV was observed to replicate in BS derived from both mouse strains, yet no release of infectious particles was detected. In contrast, EBOV replication was limited in both BS models. The release of several pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, including eotaxin, IFN-γ, IL-1α, IL-9, IL-17a and keratinocyte-derived chemokine (KC), was observed in both virus-infected models, suggesting a potential role of the inflammatory response in NiV- or EBOV-induced neuropathology. It is noteworthy that the choroid plexus was identified as a highly susceptible target for EBOV and NiV infection, suggesting that the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier may serve as a potential entry point for these viruses.

Fighting fire with fire: using infectious agents to treat persistent infection

Infectious diseases lead to significant morbidity and mortality. Often, resolution of the acute stage of the disease leads to microbial persistence, resulting in chronic debilitating disease. Management of persistent infections frequently requires lifelong therapy with antimicrobial agents. These infections could be chronic viral infections like HIV, hepatitis B or chronic bacterial persistent infections like prosthetic joint infections caused by multi-drug resistant organisms. Bacteriophages have been designed specifically to target recalcitrant bacterial infections, such as prosthetic joint infections with varying success. In this review, we describe the historic evolution of scenarios and risks associated with innovative therapy using infectious agents to treat other persistent infections.

Central nervous system infections in the tropics

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Emerging and re-emerging central nervous system (CNS) infections are a major public health concern in the tropics. The reasons for this are myriad; climate change, rainfall, deforestation, increased vector density combined with poverty, poor sanitation and hygiene. This review focuses on pathogens, which have emerged and re-emerged, with the potential for significant morbidity and mortality.

RECENT FINDINGS

In recent years, multiple acute encephalitis outbreaks have been caused by Nipah virus, which carries a high case fatality. Arboviral infections, predominantly dengue, chikungunya and Zika are re-emerging increasingly especially in urban areas due to changing human habitats, vector behaviour and viral evolution. Scrub typhus, another vector borne disease caused by the bacterium Orientia tsutsugamushi , is being established as a leading cause of CNS infections in the tropics.

SUMMARY

A syndromic and epidemiological approach to CNS infections in the tropics is essential to plan appropriate diagnostic tests and management. Rapid diagnostic tests facilitate early diagnosis and thus help prompt initiation and focusing of therapy to prevent adverse outcomes. Vector control, cautious urbanization and deforestation, and reducing disturbance of ecosystems can help prevent spread of vector-borne diseases. Regional diagnostic and treatment approaches and specific vaccines are required to avert morbidity and mortality.

State of the Art: Acute Encephalitis

Encephalitis is a devastating neurologic disease often complicated by prolonged neurologic deficits. Best practices for the management of adult patients include universal testing for a core group of etiologies, including herpes simplex virus (HSV)-1, varicella zoster virus (VZV), enteroviruses, West Nile virus, and anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (anti-NMDAR) antibody encephalitis. Empiric acyclovir therapy should be started at presentation and in selected cases continued until a second HSV-1 polymerase chain reaction test is negative. Acyclovir dose can be increased for VZV encephalitis. Supportive care is necessary for other viral etiologies. Patients in whom no cause for encephalitis is identified represent a particular challenge. Management includes repeat brain magnetic resonance imaging, imaging for occult malignancy, and empiric immunomodulatory treatment for autoimmune conditions. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) or brain biopsy should be considered. The rapid pace of discovery regarding autoimmune encephalitis and the development of advanced molecular tests such as NGS have improved diagnosis and outcomes. Research priorities include development of novel therapeutics.

Encephalitis: diagnosis, management and recent advances in the field of encephalitides

Encephalitis describes inflammation of the brain parenchyma, typically caused by either an infectious agent or through an autoimmune process which may be postinfectious, paraneoplastic or idiopathic. Patients can present with a combination of fever, alterations in behaviour, personality, cognition and consciousness. They may also exhibit focal neurological deficits, seizures, movement disorders and/or autonomic instability. However, it can sometimes present non-specifically, and this combined with its many causes make it a difficult to manage neurological syndrome. Despite improved treatments in some forms of encephalitides, encephalitis remains a global concern due to its high mortality and morbidity. Prompt diagnosis and administration of specific and supportive management options can lead to better outcomes. Over the last decade, research in encephalitis has led to marked developments in the understanding, diagnosis and management of encephalitis. In parallel, the number of autoimmune encephalitis syndromes has rapidly expanded and clinically characteristic syndromes in association with pathogenic autoantibodies have been defined. By focusing on findings presented at the Encephalitis Society's conference in December 2021, this article reviews the causes, clinical manifestations and management of encephalitis and integrate recent advances and challenges of research into encephalitis.

Diagnosing viral encephalitis and emerging concepts

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review offers a contemporary clinical approach to the diagnosis of viral encephalitis and discusses recent advances in the field. The neurologic effects of coronaviruses, including COVID-19, as well as management of encephalitis are not covered in this review.

RECENT FINDINGS

The diagnostic tools for evaluating patients with viral encephalitis are evolving quickly. Multiplex PCR panels are now in widespread use and allow for rapid pathogen detection and potentially reduce empiric antimicrobial exposure in certain patients, while metagenomic next-generation sequencing holds great promise in diagnosing challenging and rarer causes of viral encephalitis. We also review topical and emerging infections pertinent to neuroinfectious disease practice, including emerging arboviruses, monkeypox virus (mpox), and measles.

SUMMARY

Although etiological diagnosis remains challenging in viral encephalitis, recent advances may soon provide the clinician with additional tools. Environmental changes, host factors (such as ubiquitous use of immunosuppression), and societal trends (re-emergence of vaccine preventable diseases) are likely to change the landscape of neurologic infections that are considered and treated in clinical practice.

Perspectives on Diagnosis and Management of All-Cause Encephalitis: A National Survey of Adult Infectious Diseases Physicians

Background

Encephalitis is widely recognized as a challenging condition to diagnose and manage. The care of patients with encephalitis typically involves multiple disciplines, including neurologists and infectious disease (ID) physicians. Our objective was to describe the perspectives and needs of ID physicians regarding encephalitis, using a cross-sectional questionnaire survey.

Methods

We performed a survey among physician members of the Infectious Diseases Society of America's (IDSA) Emerging Infections Network (EIN).

Results

Response rate was 33% (480 among 1472 active EIN physician members). More than 75% of respondents reported caring for patients with suspected encephalitis. Although one-third were involved in the care of multiple patients with autoimmune encephalitis (AE) annually, comfort in diagnosing and managing encephalitis, and in particular AE, was low. Experience with advanced diagnostic tools was variable, as were approaches toward deployment of such tools. Respondents noted that training could be improved by incorporating a multidisciplinary approach taking advantage of online and virtual platforms. ID physicians report a heavy reliance on the 2008 IDSA guidelines for the management of encephalitis, and indicated strong support for a formal update.

Conclusions

ID physicians play an important role in the diagnosis and management of all-cause encephalitis. Despite exposure to AE, few ID physicians are comfortable in recognizing, diagnosing, and treating AE. Moreover, comfort with and use of advanced diagnostic tools for infectious encephalitis was highly variable. Training in encephalitis should include a focus on use and stewardship of advanced diagnostic tools and on collaborative approaches with neurologists and other practitioners on mechanisms and clinical presentations of AE. There is a need for a formal update of 2008 guidelines on the management of encephalitis.