Seasonal patterns of Pseudogymnoascus destructans germination indicate host-pathogen coevolution

Signals of positive selection in genomes of palearctic Myotis-bats coexisting with a fungal pathogen

Disease can act as a driving force in shaping genetic makeup across populations, even species, if the impacts influence a particularly sensitive part of their life cycles. White-nose disease is caused by a fungal pathogen infecting bats during hibernation. The mycosis has caused massive population declines of susceptible species in North America, particularly in the genus Myotis. However, Myotis bats appear to tolerate infection in Eurasia, where the fungal pathogen has co-evolved with its bat hosts for an extended period of time. Therefore, with susceptible and tolerant populations, the fungal disease provides a unique opportunity to tease apart factors contributing to tolerance at a genomic level to and gain an understanding of the evolution of non-harmful in host-parasite interactions. To investigate if the fungal disease has caused adaptation on a genomic level in Eurasian bat species, we adopted both whole-genome sequencing approaches and a literature search to compile a set of 300 genes from which to investigate signals of positive selection in genomes of 11 Eurasian bats at the codon-level. Our results indicate significant positive selection in 38 genes, many of which have a marked role in responses to infection. Our findings suggest that white-nose syndrome may have applied a significant selective pressure on Eurasian Myotis-bats in the past, which can contribute their survival in co-existence with the pathogen. Our findings provide an insight on the selective pressure pathogens afflict on their hosts using methodology that can be adapted to other host-pathogen study systems.

Characterization of a High-Affinity Copper Transporter in the White-Nose Syndrome Causing Fungal Pathogen Pseudogymnoascus destructans

Copper is an essential micronutrient and the ability to scavenge tightly bound or trace levels of copper ions at the host-pathogen interface is vital for fungal proliferation in animal hosts. Recent studies suggest that trace metal ion acquisition is critical for the establishment and propagation of Pseudogymnoascus destructans, the fungal pathogen responsible for white-nose syndrome (WNS), on their bat host. However, little is known about these metal acquisition pathways in P. destructans. In this study, we report the characterization of the P. destructans high-affinity copper transporter VC83_00191 (PdCTR1a), which is implicated as a virulence factor associated with the WNS disease state. Using Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a recombinant expression host, we find that PdCTR1a localizes to the cell surface plasma membrane and can efficiently traffic Cu-ions into the yeast cytoplasm. Complementary studies in the native P. destructans fungus provide evidence that PdCTR1a transcripts and protein levels are dictated by Cu-bioavailability in the growth media. Our study demonstrates that PdCTR1a is a functional high-affinity copper transporter and is relevant to Cu-homeostasis pathways in P. destructans.

A Palearctic view of a bat fungal disease

The fungal infection causing white-nose disease in hibernating bats in North America has resulted in dramatic population declines of affected species, since the introduction of the causative agent Pseudogymnoascus destructans. The fungus is native to the Palearctic, where it also infects several bat species, yet rarely causes severe pathology or the death of the host. Pseudogymnoascus destructans infects bats during hibernation by invading and digesting the skin tissue, resulting in the disruption of torpor patterns and consequent emaciation. Relations among pathogen, host, and environment are complex, and individuals, populations, and species respond to the fungal pathogen in different ways. For example, the Nearctic Myotis lucifugus responds to infection by mounting a robust immune response, leading to immunopathology often contributing to mortality. In contrast, the Palearctic M. myotis shows no significant immunological response to infection. This lack of a strong response, resulting from the long coevolution between the hosts and the pathogen in the pathogen's native range, likely contributes to survival in tolerant species. After more than 15 years since the initial introduction of the fungus to North America, some of the affected populations are showing signs of recovery, suggesting that the fungus, hosts, or both are undergoing processes that may eventually lead to coexistence. The suggested or implemented management methods of the disease in North America have encompassed, for example, the use of probiotics and fungicides, vaccinations, and modifying the environmental conditions of the hibernation sites to limit the growth of the pathogen, intensity of infection, or the hosts' responses to it. Based on current knowledge from Eurasia, policy makers and conservation managers should refrain from disrupting the ongoing evolutionary processes and adopt a holistic approach to managing the epizootic.

Bat white-nose disease fungus diversity in time and space

White-nose disease (WND), caused by the psychrophilic fungus Pseudogymnoascusdestructans, represents one of the greatest threats for North American hibernating bats. Research on molecular data has significantly advanced our knowledge of various aspects of the disease, yet more studies are needed regarding patterns of P.destructans genetic diversity distribution. In the present study, we investigate three sites within the native range of the fungus in detail: two natural hibernacula (karst caves) in Bulgaria, south-eastern Europe and one artificial hibernaculum (disused cellar) in Germany, northern Europe, where we conducted intensive surveys between 2014 and 2019. Using 18 microsatellite and two mating type markers, we describe how P.destructans genetic diversity is distributed between and within sites, the latter including differentiation across years and seasons of sampling; across sampling locations within the site; and between bats and hibernaculum walls. We found significant genetic differentiation between hibernacula, but we could not detect any significant differentiation within hibernacula, based on the variables examined. This indicates that most of the pathogen's movement occurs within sites. Genotypic richness of P.destructans varied between sites within the same order of magnitude, being approximately two times higher in the natural caves (Bulgaria) compared to the disused cellar (Germany). Within all sites, the pathogen's genotypic richness was higher in samples collected from hibernaculum walls than in samples collected from bats, which corresponds with the hypothesis that hibernacula walls represent the environmental reservoir of the fungus. Multiple pathogen genotypes were commonly isolated from a single bat (i.e. from the same swab sample) in all study sites, which might be important to consider when studying disease progression.

Development and Application of Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) Assays for Rapid Diagnosis of the Bat White-Nose Disease Fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans

Pseudogymnoascus destructans (= Geomyces destructans) is a psychrophilic filamentous fungus that causes White-Nose Disease (WND; the disease associated with White-Nose Syndrome, WNS) in hibernating bats. The disease has caused considerable reductions in bat populations in the USA and Canada since 2006. Identification and detection of the pathogen in pure cultures and environmental samples is routinely based on qPCR or PCR after DNA isolation and purification. Rapid and specific direct detection of the fungus in the field would strongly improve prompt surveillance, and support control measures. Based on the genes coding for ATP citrate lyase1 (acl1) and the 28S-18S ribosomal RNA intergenic spacer (IGS) in P. destructans, two independent LAMP assays were developed for the rapid and sensitive diagnosis of the fungus. Both assays could discriminate P. destructans from 159 tested species of filamentous fungi and yeasts. Sensitivity of the assays was 2.1 picogram per reaction (pg/rxn) and 21 femtogram per reaction (fg/rxn) for the acl1 and IGS based assays, respectively. Moreover, both assays also work with spores and mycelia of P. destructans that are directly added to the master mix without prior DNA extraction. For field-diagnostics, we developed and tested a field-applicable version of the IGS-based LAMP assay. Lastly, we also developed a protocol for preparation of fungal spores and mycelia from swabs and tape liftings of contaminated surfaces or infected bats. This protocol in combination with the highly sensitive IGS-based LAMP-assay enabled sensitive detection of P. destructans from various sources.

AGC/AKT Protein Kinase SCH9 Is Critical to Pathogenic Development and Overwintering Survival in Magnaporthe oryzae

Primary inoculum that survives overwintering is one of the key factors that determine the outbreak of plant disease. Pathogenic resting structures, such as chlamydospores, are an ideal inoculum for plant disease. Puzzlingly, Magnaporthe oryzae, a devastating fungal pathogen responsible for blast disease in rice, hardly form any morphologically changed resting structures, and we hypothesize that M. oryzae mainly relies on its physiological alteration to survive overwintering or other harsh environments. However, little progress on research into regulatory genes that facilitate the overwintering of rice blast pathogens has been made so far. Serine threonine protein kinase AGC/AKT, MoSch9, plays an important role in the spore-mediated pathogenesis of M. oryzae. Building on this finding, we discovered that in genetic and biological terms, MoSch9 plays a critical role in conidiophore stalk formation, hyphal-mediated pathogenesis, cold stress tolerance, and overwintering survival of M. oryzae. We discovered that the formation of conidiophore stalks and disease propagation using spores was severely compromised in the mutant strains, whereas hyphal-mediated pathogenesis and the root infection capability of M. oryzae were completely eradicated due to MoSch9 deleted mutants’ inability to form an appressorium-like structure. Most importantly, the functional and transcriptomic study of wild-type and MoSch9 mutant strains showed that MoSch9 plays a regulatory role in cold stress tolerance of M. oryzae through the transcription regulation of secondary metabolite synthesis, ATP hydrolyzing, and cell wall integrity proteins during osmotic stress and cold temperatures. From these results, we conclude that MoSch9 is essential for fungal infection-related morphogenesis and overwintering of M. oryzae.

Population genetics as a tool to elucidate pathogen reservoirs: Lessons from Pseudogymnoascus destructans, the causative agent of White-Nose disease in bats

Emerging infectious diseases pose a major threat to human, animal, and plant health. The risk of species-extinctions increases when pathogens can survive in the absence of the host. Environmental reservoirs can facilitate this. However, identifying such reservoirs and modes of infection is often highly challenging. In this study, we investigated the presence and nature of an environmental reservoir for the ascomycete fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans, the causative agent of White-Nose disease. Using 18 microsatellite markers, we determined the genotypic differentiation between 1497 P. destructans isolates collected from nine closely situated underground sites where bats hibernate (i.e., hibernacula) in Northeastern Germany. This approach was unique in that it ensured that every isolate and resulting multilocus genotype was not only present, but also viable and therefore theoretically capable of infecting a bat. The distinct distribution of multilocus genotypes across hibernacula demonstrates that each hibernaculum has an essentially unique fungal population. This would be expected if bats become infected in their hibernaculum (i.e., the site they spend winter in to hibernate) rather than in other sites visited before they start hibernating. In one hibernaculum, both the walls and the hibernating bats were sampled at regular intervals over five consecutive winter seasons (1062 isolates), revealing higher genotypic richness on walls compared to bats and a stable frequency of multilocus genotypes over multiple winters. This clearly implicates hibernacula walls as the main environmental reservoir of the pathogen, from which bats become reinfected annually during the autumn.

Heterothermy and antifungal responses in bats

Hibernation, a period where bats have suppressed immunity and low body temperatures, provides the psychrophilic fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans the opportunity to colonise bat skin, leading to severe disease in susceptible species. Innate immunity, which requires less energy and may remain more active during torpor, can control infections with local inflammation in some bat species that are resistant to infection. If infection is not controlled before emergence from hibernation, ineffective adaptive immune mechanisms are activated, including incomplete Th1, ineffective Th2, and variable Th17 responses. The Th17 and neutrophil responses, normally beneficial antifungal mechanisms, appear to be sources of immunopathology for susceptible bat species, because they are hyperactivated after return to homeothermy. Non-susceptible species show both well-balanced and suppressed immune responses both during and after hibernation.