Diversity of arthropods on Acacia mangium (Fabaceae) and production of this plant with dehydrated sewage sludge in degraded area

Do arthropods and diseases affect the production of fruits on Caryocar brasiliense Camb. (Malpighiales: Caryocaraceae)?

Abstract Frequencies, magnitudes, and distributions of occurrence can affect the events. The problem can be worse or the solution better if greater frequencies and magnitudes are presented with aggregated distribution in the production system. Indices, hence, are used to assist in decision-making on certain issues. The system formed by Caryocar brasiliense Camb. (Malpighiales: Caryocaraceae), a typical and economically important Brazilian Cerrado tree species, and its several arthropods are adequate to evaluate a new index. This study aimed to test an index to identify the loss and solution sources and their importance in the system's loss or income gain. The index is: Percentage of Importance Indice % I . I . = k s 1 × c 1 × d s 1 / Σ k s 1 × c 1 × d s 1 + k s 2 × c 2 × d s 2 + k s n × c n × d s n x 100. T h e % I . I . separated the loss sources [e.g., Edessa rufomarginata De Geer, 1773 (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) on fruits = 41.90%)] on the percentage of reduction of fruit production (e.g., 0.13%), calculated the attention level (e.g., 0.10/fruit), with a total lost production of 1.35% (≈ 307 total lost fruits). The % I.I. also separated the solution sources [e.g., Zelus armillatus (Lep. and Servi., 1825) (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) = 55.48%), the non-attention level (e.g., Z. armillatus: 0.394 for E. rufomarginata on fruit), with total income gain of 0.56% (≈ 128 total saved fruits) on the natural system (e.g., C. brasiliense trees). This index can calculate losses or the effectiveness of the solutions monetarily. Here I test the % I.I., an index that can detect the key loss and solution sources on the system, which can be applied in some knowledge areas.

Free-feeding organisms and galling insects (Hymenoptera) interactions on Caryocar brasiliense (Malpighiales: Caryocaraceae) trees, a savanna plant from Brazil

Abstract Galling insects are abundant in nature, found in many ecosystems globally, with species attacking plants of economic importance. We studied the effects of free-feeding organisms on the abundance of galling insects on Caryocar brasiliense (Caryocaraceae) trees in the Brazilian Cerrado (Savanna). Percentage of defoliation and the number of phytophagous mites or number of phytophagous Hemiptera correlated negatively with percentage of galled leaves and the parasitoid Eurytoma sp. (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae) adults, respectively. Percentage of galled leaves and the numbers of Eurytoma sp. adults and phytophagous mites correlated positively with spiders. Numbers of mites and Hemiptera phytophagous correlated positively with those of lady beetles and Sycophila sp. (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae), respectively. The number of Ablerus magistretti Blanchard (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) adults correlated negatively with Sycophila sp. The number of Agistemus sp. (Acari: Stigmaeidae) correlated, negatively and positively, with those of lady beetles and phytophagous mites, respectively. Free-feeding herbivores affected the presence of galling insects (Hymenoptera) on C. brasiliense trees, competing for food and space. The same was observed between two parasitoids of Eurytoma sp. galling insect, which can reduce the natural biological control of this pest.

Positive relationships between insects and negative with spiders on Acacia auriculiformis (Fabaceae) plants in the savannah biome and their distribution pattern

Abstract Forest restoration is mainly based on plant-soil relationships and plant species with economic potential, but those between insects and other arthropods are also important to this reestablishment. The objective was to evaluate, during 24 months, the relationships between tending ants, Hemiptera phytophagous, predators and their distribution pattern (aggregated, random or uniform). The arthropods were sampled, stored and identified and their relationships and distribution patterns calculated with the BioDiversity-Pro software. The number of tending ants and phytophagous Hemiptera, Brachymyrmex sp. and Aethalion reticulatum, Cephalotes and Aleyrodidae were positively correlated. Tending ants were negatively correlated with Sternorrhyncha predators on A. auriculiformis saplings. The distribution of arthropods was aggregated, except for Teudis sp. and Cephalocoema sp., with a random pattern. The herbivores Stereoma anchoralis, Aethalion reticulatum and Tetragonisca angustula and the predators Brachymyrmex sp. and Dolichopodidae were the most abundant arthropods. The relationships between the arthropods studied on A. auriculiformis indicate that this plant, even introduced, is suitable for programs to recover degraded areas in the savannah.

Arthropods as possible losses and solutions on Terminalia argentea (Combretaceae) saplings

Terminalia argentea native tree to Brazil and used in landscaping, wood and coal production, and civil construction, is adapted to poor and dry soils and cultivated in severely disturbed ecosystems. This plant has insecticidal activity, but arthropods can cause damage to its saplings. This study evaluates the herbivorous insects and of their natural enemies on 48 T. argentea saplings which were divided according to the damage they cause or reduce it on these saplings using the percentage of the Importance Index-Production Unknown (% I.I.-P.U.). The Lamprosoma sp., Epitragus sp., Tropidacris collaris, Cerambycidae, Cratosomus sp., Psiloptera sp., Parasyphraea sp., Trigona spinipes, and Aphis spiraecola showed the highest % I.I.-P.U. on leaves of T. argentea. The Aphirape uncifera, Mantis religiosa, Uspachus sp., Podisus sp., and Araneidae, with the highest % I.I.-P.U. on leaves of T. argentea saplings are possible solutions to reduce damage by these pests. These natural enemies can reduce herbivorous insects on T. argentea saplings. However, their populations should be increased, especially spiders. Nevertheless, the Brachymyrmex sp. associated to A. spiraecola, in future T. argentea commercial plantations, can increase populations of sap-sucking insect and, consequently, their damage.

Spatial distribution, ecological indices and interactions of arthropods on Sapindus saponaria (Sapindaceae) plants

Sapindus saponaria L. (Sapindaceae) is a pioneer species used in programs to recover degraded areas. The trees also assist in the pest control of some insects due to the composition of saponins on their leaves. In addition, these chemical components are important to pharmaceutical product production. The objective was to evaluate the impact of spatial distribution, indices and ecological relationship of arthropods on S. saponaria leaves to preserve the balance of biodiversity. Aggregated distribution of arthropods was observed; the numbers of phytophagous arthropods were higher on the adaxial leaf face than on the abaxial part. Only Aleyrodidae (Hemiptera) had a higher presence on the abaxial leaf face of S. saponaria saplings. Abundance, diversity, and species richness of natural enemies correlated positively with phytophagous and pollinators insects. On the other hand, the number of Lyriomyza sp. mines correlated negatively with Pseudomyrmex termitarius (Smith) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). All this information can assist and guide integrated pest management programs.

Arthropods as possible loss or solution sources on Acacia mangium (Fabales: Fabaceae) saplings

Acacia mangium (Willd.) (Fabales: Fabaceae) tree shows applicability in programs to recover degraded areas due to its fast-growing, rustic, pioneer species, with the potential to fix nitrogen. However, this plant is attacked by pests. It is important to know, among them, the most important. This study aims to evaluate the herbivorous insects (loss sources) and their natural enemies (solution sources) on 48 A. mangium saplings. They were classified according to their ability to damage or reduce the source of damage on these saplings using the percentage of the Importance Index-Production Unknown (% I.I.-P.U.). The loss sources Trigona spinipes Fabr. (Hymenoptera: Apidae), Aleyrodidae (Hemiptera), Phenacoccus sp. (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), Aethalion reticulatum L. (Hemiptera: Aethalionidae), and Tropidacris collaris Stoll. (Orthoptera: Romaleidae), showed the highest % I.I.-P.U. on leaves of A. mangium saplings. The solution sources Oxyopidae (Araneae), Pseudomyrmex termitarius (Smith) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), and Brachymyrmex sp. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), showed the highest % I.I.-P.U. on leaves of A. mangium saplings. The number of Lordops sp. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) was reduced per number of Brachymyrmex sp.; that of T. collaris those of Oxyopidae and Brachymyrmex sp.; and that of Tettigoniidae that of P. termitarius, totaling 8.93% of reduction of these herbivorous insects (numbers) on A. mangium saplings. These herbivorous insects turn into problems in commercial plantations of this plant since to are related to pests in some crops. These tending ants and Oxyopidae can be important on A. mangium commercial crops because they can reduce the number of these herbivorous insects.

Phytophagous insects and natural enemies on Sapindus saponaria L. (Sapindales: Sapindaceae) plants fertilized with or without dehydrated sewage sludge

Management programs and efficient techniques are necessary to recover degraded ecosystems. The sewage sludge is rich in nitrogen (N) and with the potential to fertilize Sapindus saponaria L. (Sapinales: Sapindaceae), used in the recovery of degraded areas; this can affect the insect fauna. The study's objective was to evaluate, for 24 months, the abundance of chewing insects, dipterans, pollinators, and predators on S. saponaria plants fertilized with or without dehydrated sewage sludge in a degraded area. The experimental design was completely randomized (with the same characteristics) with two treatments (with or without dehydrated sewage sludge) and 24 replicates, each with one plant. The abundance of Anastrepha sp. (Tephritidae), Cerotoma sp. (Chrysomelidae), Curculionidae, Musca domestica L. (Muscidae), Mantis religiosa L. (Mantodea: Mantidae), Oxyopidae, Salticidae, Tettigoniidae (Orthoptera), and Teudis sp. (Anyphaenidae) was higher on fertilized plants. The abundances of Teudis sp. and Tmarus sp. (Thomisidae) and M. religiosa and Teudis sp. were positively correlated with chewing insects and Diptera, respectively. The population increase of insects and spiders on S. saponaria plants fertilized with dehydrated sewage sludge (bigger crowns) has shown to be suitable for recovering degraded areas with a higher number of niches and better food quality, improving the ecological indices of the area.

Percentage of importance indice-production unknown: loss and solution sources identification on system

Abstract Indices are used to help on decision-making. This study aims to develop and test an index, which can determine the loss (e.g., herbivorous insects) and solution (e.g., natural enemies) sources. They will be classified according to their importance regarding the ability to damage or to reduce the source of damage to the system when the final production is unknown. Acacia auriculiformis (Fabales: Fabaceae), a non-native pioneer species in Brazil with fast growth and rusticity, is used in restoration programs, and it is adequate to evaluate a new index. The formula was: Percentage of the Importance Indice-Production Unknown (% I.I.-PU) = [(ks1 x c1 x ds1)/Σ (ks1 x c1 x ds1) + (ks2 x c2 x ds2) + (ksn x cn x dsn)] x 100. The loss sources Aethalion reticulatum L., 1767 (Hemiptera: Aethalionidae), Aleyrodidae (Hemiptera), Stereoma anchoralis Lacordaire, 1848 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), and Tettigoniidae, and solution sources Uspachus sp. (Araneae: Salticidae), Salticidae (Araneae), and Pseudomyrmex termitarius (Smith, 1877) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) showed the highest % I.I.-PU on leaves of A. auriculiformis saplings. The number of Diabrotica speciosa Germar, 1824 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) was reduced per number of Salticidae; that of A. reticulatum that of Uspachus sp.; and that of Cephalocoema sp. (Orthoptera: Proscopiidae) that of P. termitarius on A. auriculiformis saplings. However, the number of Aleyrodidae was increased per number of Cephalotes sp. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and that of A. reticulatum that of Brachymyrmex sp. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) on A. auriculiformis saplings. The A. reticulatum damage was reduced per number of Uspachus sp., but the Aleyrodidae damage was increased per number of Cephalotes sp., totaling 23.81% of increase by insect damages on A. auriculiformis saplings. Here I show and test the % I.I.-PU. It is an new index that can detect the loss or solution sources on a system when production is unknown. It can be applied in some knowledge areas.

Insects and spiders on Acacia mangium (Fabaceae) saplings as bioindicators for the recovery of tropical degraded areas

Acacia mangium is a pioneer species with fast growth and frequently used in the recovery of degraded areas. The objectives were to evaluate insects and spiders, their ecological indices and interactions on A. mangium saplings in a tropical degraded area in recovering process. The experimental design was completely randomized with 24 replications, with treatments represented by the first and second years after A. mangium seedling planted. Numbers of leaves/branch, branches/sapling, and ground cover by A. mangium saplings, Hemiptera: Phenacoccus sp. and Pachycoris torridus; Hymenoptera: Tetragonisca angustula and Trigona spinipes, Brachymyrmex sp., Camponotus sp. and Cephalotes sp.; Blattodea: Nasutitermes sp. and Neuroptera: Chrysoperla sp.; abundance, species richness of pollinating insects, tending ants, and the abundance of Sternorrhyncha predators were greatest in the second year after planting. Numbers of Hemiptera: Aethalium reticulatum, Hymenoptera: Camponotus sp., Cephalotes sp., Polybia sp., T. angustula, T. spinipes, tending ants, pollinating insects, Sternorrhyncha predators and species richness of tending ants were highest on A. mangium saplings with greatest numbers of leaves or branches. The increase in the population of arthropods with ground cover by A. mangium saplings age increase indicates the positive impact by this plant on the recovery process of degraded areas.

Arthropod fauna on the abaxial and adaxial surfaces of Acacia mangium (Fabaceae) leaves

Acacia mangium (Willd., 1806) (Fabales: Fabaceae) is a fast growing, rustic, pioneer species, with potential to fix nitrogen, and for programs to recover degraded areas. The objective was to evaluate the distribution and the functional diversity of interactions and the K-dominance of arthropod groups on A. mangium saplings. The number of individuals of eleven species of phytophagous insects, three bee species, and fourteen natural enemy species were highest on the adaxial leaf surface of this plant. Abundance, diversity and species richness of phytophagous insects and natural enemies, and abundance and species richness of pollinators were highest on the adaxial A. mangium leaf surface. The distribution of five species of sap-sucking hemipterans and six of protocooperating ants (Hymenoptera), with positive interaction between these groups, and three bee species (Hymenoptera) were aggregated on leaves of A. mangium saplings. Aethalion reticulatum (L.) (Hemiptera: Aethalionidae) and Bemisia sp. (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae); Brachymyrmex sp. and Camponotus sp. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae); and Trigona spinipes Fabricius (Hymenoptera: Apidae) were the most dominant phytophagous insects, natural enemies, and pollinators, respectively, on A. mangium leaves. Knowledge of preferred leaf surfaces could help integrated pest management programs.

Chewing insects, pollinators, and predators on Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Beth (Fabales: Fabaceae) plants fertilized with dehydrated sewage sludge

Fertilization with dehydrated sewage sludge can speed up the recovery process of degraded areas due to nutrients concentration, favoring the development of pioneer plants such as Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Beth (Fabales: Fabaceae) and the emergence of insects. This study aimed the evaluation of chewing, pollinating insects, predators, their ecological indices and relationships on A. auriculiformis plants fertilized with dehydrated sewage sludge. The experimental design was completely randomized with two treatments (with and without dehydrated sewage sludge) and 24 repetitions. The prevalence of chewing insects Parasyphraea sp. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), Nasutitermes sp. (Blattodea: Termitidae), and Tropidacris collaris (Stoll, 1813) (Orthoptera: Romaleidae), defoliation, and ecological indices of abundance of Coleoptera and Orthoptera were observed on fertilized A. auriculiformis. Acacia auriculiformis plants, with a superior number of branches/tree, revealed greater abundance of Coleoptera and Orthoptera, species richness of pollinating insects, defoliation, numbers of Parasyphraea sp. and T. collaris. The ones with larger leaves/branches displayed greater abundance of species richness of Coleoptera and Diabrotica speciosa (Germar, 1824) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). Therefore, the use of A. auriculiformis plants, fertilized with dehydrated sewage sludge, is promising in the recovery of degraded areas due to the ecological indices increase of chewing and pollinators insects and spiders in the analyzed area.

Distribution pattern of arthropods on the leaf surfaces of Acacia auriculiformis saplings

Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. Ex Benth. (Fabaceae), a non-native pioneer species in Brazil with fast growth and rusticity, is used in restoration programs. Our goal was to assess during a 24-month survey the pattern of arthropods (phytophagous insects, bees, spiders, and predator insects) on the leaf surfaces of A. auriculiformis saplings. Fourteen species of phytophagous, two of bees and eleven of predators were most abundant on the adaxial surface. The values of the ecological indexes (abundance, diversity, and species richness) and the rarefaction, and k-dominance curves of phytophagous, bees and arthropod predators were highest on the adaxial leaf surface of A. auriculiformis. The k-dominance and abundance of Aleyrodidae (Hemiptera) (both leaf surfaces), the native stingless bee Tetragonisca angustula Latreille (Hymenoptera: Apidae) (both leaf surfaces) and the ant Brachymyrmex sp. (adaxial surface) and Pheidole sp. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) (abaxial surface) were the highest between the taxonomic groups of phytophagous, bees, and predators, respectively on A. auriculiformis saplings. The ecological indexes and rarefaction, abundance, and k-dominance curves of phytophagous insects, bees, and predators were highest on the adaxial leaf surface. The preference of phytophagous insects for the adaxial leaf surface is probably due to the lower effort required to move on this surface. Understanding the arthropod preferences between leaf surfaces may help to develop sampling and pest management plans for the most abundant phytophagous insects on A. auriculiformis saplings. Also, knowledge on the preference pattern of bees and predators may be used to favour their conservation.

Ecological indices of phytophagous Hemiptera and their natural enemies on Acacia auriculiformis (Fabales: Fabaceae) plants with or without dehydrated sewage sludge application in a degraded area

Soil fertilization with dehydrated sewage sludge (DSS) accelerates the recovery process of degraded areas by improving nutrient concentration, and favors the development of trophic webs with pioneer plants such as Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Beth (Fabales: Fabaceae), phytophagous Hemiptera, predators, and protocooperanting ants. This study aimed to evaluate the development and production of A. auriculiformis litter with or without dehydrated sewage sludge application and the ecological indices of sucking insects (Hemiptera), their predators and protocooperating ants, as bioindicators, in a degraded area for 24 months. Complete randomization was applied for two treatments (with or without application of dehydrated sewage sludge) in 24 replications (one repetition = one plant). We evaluated the number of leaves/branch and branches/plant, percentage of soil cover (litter), ecological indices of phytophagous Hemiptera, their predators, and protocooperating ants. The plants of A. auriculiformis, that were applied with dehydrated sewage sludge, had superior development when compared to plants where DSS were not applied. The highest abundance and richness of phytophagous Hemiptera species and Sternorrhyncha predators occurred on A. auriculiformis plants that were applied with dehydrated sewage sludge. The increase in richness of species of protocooperanting ants that established mutualistic relationships positively influenced the phytophagous Hemiptera. The use of A. auriculiformis, with application of dehydrated sewage sludge, can increase recovery of degraded areas due to its higher soil cover (e.g., litter) and results in higher ecological indices of phytophagous Hemiptera and their predators.

Arthropod Communities in Urban Agricultural Production Systems under Different Irrigation Sources in the Northern Region of Ghana

Urban and peri-urban agricultural (UPA) production systems in West African countries do not only mitigate food and financial insecurity, they may also foster biodiversity of arthropods and partly compensate for structural losses of natural environments. However, management practices in UPA systems like irrigation may also contribute to disturbances in arthropod ecology. To fill knowledge gaps in the relationships between UPA management and arthropod populations, we compared arthropods species across different irrigation sources in Tamale. During a 72-h sampling period, 14,226 arthropods were caught with pitfall traps and pan traps from 36 fields. These specimens comprised 13 orders, 103 families, 264 genera, and 329 taxa (243 identified species, 86 unidentified species) and categorized into five feeding guilds (carnivores, decomposers, herbivores, omnivores, and pollinators). Species richness, species accumulation curves, and diversity functions (richness, evenness, and dispersion) were calculated to characterize the arthropod community. Non-metric multidimensional scaling was applied to examine structural similarity of arthropod communities among sites. To account for the effects of soil-related data, we furthermore applied a redundancy analysis. Arthropods grouped according to the irrigation water source, whereby the dipterans were most dominant under wastewater conditions. Here, particularly the eye gnat, Hippelates pusio, a disease-causing vector for humans, accounted for the dipterans. The occurrence of three alien ant species suggested community shifts through invasive species, while the occurrence of seven ant species (at least one ant species occurred under each water source) that form mutualistic relationships with aphids highlighted future risks of aphid pest outbreak. Future studies on these taxa should specifically target their ecological and economic effects and potential countermeasures.

Does fertilization with dehydrated sewage sludge affect Terminalia argentea (Combretaceae) and associated arthropods community in a degraded area?

Nutrients from dehydrated sewage sludge play an essential role in the development of many plants such as Terminalia argentea, in the recovery of degraded areas. The aims were to assess the abundance, diversity and species richness of phytophagous, pollinators and predators arthropods, as well as the percentage of defoliation of T. argentea trees, fertilized (or not) with dehydrated sewage sludge in a degraded area. The abundance, diversity and species richness of phytophagous Coleoptera and total predators (predator insects + protocooperating ants + spiders); abundance and species richness of Diptera, pollinator insects, spiders, and predators (predator insects + spiders) were higher on trees fertilized with dehydrated sewage sludge. The abundance of phytophagous Coleoptera declined with the presence of phytophagous Hemiptera and protocooperating ants; population of phytophagous Orthoptera declined in response to phytophagous Coleoptera and total predators; the numbers of the leafminer Lyriomyza sp. directly increased with the numbers of spiders. The ecological indices of phytophagous, pollinators, and predator arthopods increased on Terminalia argentea trees fertilized with dehydrated sewage sludge; such a better ecological indices in fertilized than in unfertilized trees, show it more suitable for the recovery of degraded areas. We discuss the competition between phytophagous insects groups as well as herbivory reduction by predators.