Beet necrotic yellow vein virus subgenomic RNA3 is a cleavage product leading to stable non-coding RNA required for long-distance movement

A vicinal oxygen chelate protein facilitates viral infection by triggering the unfolded protein response in Nicotiana benthamiana

Vicinal oxygen chelate (VOC) proteins are members of an enzyme superfamily with dioxygenase or non-dioxygenase activities. However, the biological functions of VOC proteins in plants are poorly understood. Here, we show that a VOC in Nicotiana benthamiana (NbVOC1) facilitates viral infection. NbVOC1 was significantly induced by infection by beet necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV). Transient overexpression of NbVOC1 or its homolog from Beta vulgaris (BvVOC1) enhanced BNYVV infection in N. benthamiana, which required the nuclear localization of VOC1. Consistent with this result, overexpressing NbVOC1 facilitated BNYVV infection, whereas, knockdown and knockout of NbVOC1 inhibited BNYVV infection in transgenic N. benthamiana plants. NbVOC1 interacts with the basic leucine zipper transcription factors bZIP17/28, which enhances their self-interaction and DNA binding to the promoters of unfolded protein response (UPR)-related genes. We propose that bZIP17/28 directly binds to the NbVOC1 promoter and induces its transcription, forming a positive feedback loop to induce the UPR and facilitating BNYVV infection. Collectively, our results demonstrate that NbVOC1 positively regulates the UPR that enhances viral infection in plants.

Intermolecular base-pairing interactions, a unique topology and exoribonuclease-resistant noncoding RNAs drive formation of viral chimeric RNAs in plants

In plants, exoribonuclease-resistant RNAs (xrRNAs) are produced by many viruses. Whereas xrRNAs contribute to the pathogenicity of these viruses, the role of xrRNAs in the virus infectious cycle remains elusive. Here, we show that xrRNAs produced by a benyvirus (a multipartite RNA virus with four genomic segments) in plants are involved in the formation of monocistronic coat protein (CP)-encoding chimeric RNAs. Naturally occurring chimeric RNAs, we discovered, are composed of 5'-end of RNA 2 and 3'-end of either RNA 3 or RNA 4 bearing conservative exoribonuclease-resistant 'coremin' region. Using computational tools and site-directed mutagenesis, we show that de novo formation of chimeric RNAs requires intermolecular base-pairing interaction between 'coremin' and 3'-proximal part of the CP gene of RNA 2 as well as a stem-loop structure immediately adjacent to the CP gene. Moreover, knockdown of the expression of the XRN4 gene, encoding 5'→3' exoribonuclease, inhibits biogenesis of both xrRNAs and chimeric RNAs. Our findings suggest a novel mechanism involving a unique tropology of the intermolecular base-pairing complex between xrRNAs and RNA2 to promote formation of chimeric RNAs in plants. XrRNAs, essential for chimeric RNA biogenesis, are generated through the action of cytoplasmic Xrn 4 5'→3' exoribonuclease conserved in all plant species.

Analysis of the relative frequencies of the multipartite BNYVV genomic RNAs in different plants and tissues

Multipartite virus genomes are composed of two or more segments, each packaged into an independent viral particle. A potential advantage of multipartitism is the regulation of gene expression through changes in the segment copy number. Soil-borne beet necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV) is a typical example of multipartism, given its high number of genomic positive-sense RNAs (up to five). Here we analyse the relative frequencies of the four genomic RNAs of BNYVV type B during infection of different host plants (Chenopodium quinoa, Beta macrocarpa and Spinacia oleracea) and organs (leaves and roots). By successfully validating a two-step reverse-transcriptase digital droplet PCR protocol, we show that RNA1 and -2 genomic segments always replicate at low and comparable relative frequencies. In contrast, RNA3 and -4 accumulate with variable relative frequencies, resulting in distinct RNA1 : RNA2 : RNA3 : RNA4 ratios, depending on the infected host species and organ.

Xrn1-resistant RNA motifs are disseminated throughout the RNA virome and are able to block scanning ribosomes

RNAs that are able to prevent degradation by the 5'-3' exoribonuclease Xrn1 have emerged as crucial structures during infection by an increasing number of RNA viruses. Several plant viruses employ the so-called coremin motif, an Xrn1-resistant RNA that is usually located in 3' untranslated regions. Investigation of its structural and sequence requirements has led to its identification in plant virus families beyond those in which the coremin motif was initially discovered. In this study, we identified coremin-like motifs that deviate from the original in the number of nucleotides present in the loop region of the 5' proximal hairpin. They are present in a number of viral families that previously did not have an Xrn1-resistant RNA identified yet, including the double-stranded RNA virus families Hypoviridae and Chrysoviridae. Through systematic mutational analysis, we demonstrated that a coremin motif carrying a 6-nucleotide loop in the 5' proximal hairpin generally requires a YGNNAD consensus for stalling Xrn1, similar to the previously determined YGAD consensus required for Xrn1 resistance of the original coremin motif. Furthermore, we determined the minimal requirements for the 3' proximal hairpin. Since some putative coremin motifs were found in intergenic regions or coding sequences, we demonstrated their capacity for inhibiting translation through an in vitro ribosomal scanning inhibition assay. Consequently, this study provides a further expansion on the number of viral families with known Xrn1-resistant elements, while adding a novel, potentially regulatory function for this structure.

Effects of the noncoding subgenomic RNA of red clover necrotic mosaic virus in virus infection

In recent years, a new class of viral noncoding subgenomic RNA (ncsgRNA) has been identified. This RNA is generated as a stable degradation product via an exoribonuclease-resistant RNA (xrRNA) structure, which blocks the progression of 5′→3′ exoribonuclease on viral RNAs in infected cells. Here, we assess the effects of the ncsgRNA of red clover necrotic mosaic virus (RCNMV), called SR1f, in infected plants. We demonstrate the following: (i) the absence of SR1f reduces symptoms and decreases viral RNA accumulation in Nicotiana benthamiana and Arabidopsis thaliana plants; (ii) SR1f has an essential function other than suppression of RNA silencing; and (iii) the cytoplasmic exoribonuclease involved in mRNA turnover, XRN4, is not required for SR1f production or virus infection. A comparative transcriptomic analysis in N. benthamiana infected with wild-type RCNMV or an SR1f-deficient mutant RCNMV revealed that wild-type RCNMV infection, which produces SR1f and much higher levels of virus, has a greater and more significant impact on cellular gene expression than the SR1f-deficient mutant. Upregulated pathways include plant hormone signaling, plant-pathogen interaction, MAPK signaling, and several metabolic pathways, while photosynthesis-related genes were downregulated. We compare this to host genes known to participate in infection by other tombusvirids. Viral reads revealed a 10- to 100-fold ratio of positive to negative strand, and the abundance of reads of both strands mapping to the 3′ region of RCNMV RNA1 support the premature transcription termination mechanism of synthesis for the coding sgRNA. These results provide a framework for future studies of the interactions and functions of noncoding RNAs of plant viruses.

IMPORTANCE Knowledge of how RNA viruses manipulate host and viral gene expression is crucial to our understanding of infection and disease. Unlike viral protein-host interactions, little is known about the control of gene expression by viral RNA. Here, we begin to address this question by investigating the noncoding subgenomic RNA (ncsgRNA) of red clover necrotic mosaic virus (RCNMV), called SR1f. Similar exoribonuclease-resistant RNAs of flaviviruses are well studied, but the roles of plant viral ncsgRNAs, and how they arise, are poorly understood. Surprisingly, we find the likely exonuclease candidate, XRN4, is not required to generate SR1f, and we assess the effects of SR1f on virus accumulation and symptom development. Finally, we compare the effects of infection by wild-type RCNMV versus an SR1f-deficient mutant on host gene expression in Nicotiana benthamiana, which reveals that ncsgRNAs such as SR1f are key players in virus-host interactions to facilitate productive infection.

The Intriguing Conundrum of a Nonconserved Multifunctional Protein of Citrus Tristeza Virus That Interacts with a Viral Long Non-Coding RNA

Citrus tristeza virus (CTV), the largest non-segmented plant RNA virus, has several peculiar features, among which is the production of a 5'-terminal long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) termed low-molecular-weight tristeza 1 (LMT1). In this study, we found that p33, a unique viral protein that performs multiple functions in the virus infection cycle, specifically binds LMT1, both in vivo and in vitro. These results were obtained through the expression of p33 under the context of the wild type virus infection or along with a mutant CTV variant that does not produce LMT1 as well as via ectopic co-expression of p33 with LMT1 in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves followed by RNA immunoprecipitation and rapid amplification of cDNA ends assays. Further experiments in which a recombinant p33 protein and an in vitro transcribed full-length LMT1 RNA or its truncated fragments were subjected to an electrophoretic mobility shift assay demonstrated that p33 binds to at least two distinct regions within LMT1. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of a plant virus protein binding to a lncRNA produced by the same virus. The biological significance of the interaction between these two viral factors is discussed.

Replication-Dependent Biogenesis of Turnip Crinkle Virus Long Noncoding RNAs

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) of virus origin accumulate in cells infected by many positive-strand (+) RNA viruses to bolster viral infectivity. Their biogenesis mostly utilizes exoribonucleases of host cells that degrade viral genomic or subgenomic RNAs in the 5'-to-3' direction until being stalled by well-defined RNA structures. Here, we report a viral lncRNA that is produced by a novel replication-dependent mechanism. This lncRNA corresponds to the last 283 nucleotides of the turnip crinkle virus (TCV) genome and hence is designated tiny TCV subgenomic RNA (ttsgR). ttsgR accumulated to high levels in TCV-infected Nicotiana benthamiana cells when the TCV-encoded RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), also known as p88, was overexpressed. Both (+) and (-) strand forms of ttsgR were produced in a manner dependent on the RdRp functionality. Strikingly, templates as short as ttsgR itself were sufficient to program ttsgR amplification, as long as the TCV-encoded replication proteins p28 and p88 were provided in trans. Consistent with its replicational origin, ttsgR accumulation required a 5' terminal carmovirus consensus sequence (CCS), a sequence motif shared by genomic and subgenomic RNAs of many viruses phylogenetically related to TCV. More importantly, introducing a new CCS motif elsewhere in the TCV genome was alone sufficient to cause the emergence of another lncRNA. Finally, abolishing ttsgR by mutating its 5' CCS gave rise to a TCV mutant that failed to compete with wild-type TCV in Arabidopsis. Collectively, our results unveil a replication-dependent mechanism for the biogenesis of viral lncRNAs, thus suggesting that multiple mechanisms, individually or in combination, may be responsible for viral lncRNA production. IMPORTANCE Many positive-strand (+) RNA viruses produce long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) during the process of cellular infections and mobilize these lncRNAs to counteract antiviral defenses, as well as coordinate the translation of viral proteins. Most viral lncRNAs arise from 5'-to-3' degradation of longer viral RNAs being stalled at stable secondary structures. Here, we report a viral lncRNA that is produced by the replication machinery of turnip crinkle virus (TCV). This lncRNA, designated ttsgR, shares the terminal characteristics with TCV genomic and subgenomic RNAs and overaccumulates in the presence of moderately overexpressed TCV RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). Furthermore, templates that are of similar sizes as ttsgR are readily replicated by TCV replication proteins (p28 and RdRp) provided from nonviral sources. In summary, this study establishes an approach for uncovering low abundance viral lncRNAs, and characterizes a replicating TCV lncRNA. Similar investigations on human-pathogenic (+) RNA viruses could yield novel therapeutic targets.

Shared properties and singularities of exoribonuclease-resistant RNAs in viruses

What viral RNA genomes lack in size, they make up for in intricacy. Elaborate RNA structures embedded in viral genomes can hijack essential cellular mechanisms aiding virus propagation. Exoribonuclease-resistant RNAs (xrRNAs) are an emerging class of viral elements, which resist degradation by host cellular exoribonucleases to produce viral RNAs with diverse roles during infection. Detailed three-dimensional structural studies of xrRNAs from flaviviruses and a subset of plant viruses led to a mechanistic model in which xrRNAs block enzymatic digestion using a ring-like structure that encircles the 5' end of the resistant structure. In this mini-review, we describe the state of our understanding of the phylogenetic distribution of xrRNAs, their structures, and their conformational dynamics. Because xrRNAs have now been found in several major superfamilies of RNA viruses, they may represent a more widely used strategy than currently appreciated. Could xrRNAs represent a 'molecular clock' that would help us understand virus evolution and pathogenicity? The more we study xrRNAs in viruses, the closer we get to finding xrRNAs within cellular RNAs.

Opium Poppy Mosaic Virus Has an Xrn-Resistant, Translated Subgenomic RNA and a BTE 3' CITE

Opium poppy mosaic virus (OPMV) is a recently discovered umbravirus in the family Tombusviridae OPMV has a plus-sense genomic RNA (gRNA) of 4,241 nucleotides (nt) from which replication protein p35 and p35 extension product p98, the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), are expressed. Movement proteins p27 (long distance) and p28 (cell to cell) are expressed from a 1,440-nt subgenomic RNA (sgRNA2). A highly conserved structure was identified just upstream from the sgRNA2 transcription start site in all umbraviruses, which includes a carmovirus consensus sequence, denoting generation by an RdRp-mediated mechanism. OPMV also has a second sgRNA of 1,554 nt (sgRNA1) that starts just downstream of a canonical exoribonuclease-resistant sequence (xrRNA_D). sgRNA1 codes for a 30-kDa protein in vitro that is in frame with p28 and cannot be synthesized in other umbraviruses. Eliminating sgRNA1 or truncating the p30 open reading frame (ORF) without affecting p28 substantially reduced accumulation of OPMV gRNA, suggesting a functional role for the protein. The 652-nt 3' untranslated region of OPMV contains two 3' cap-independent translation enhancers (3' CITEs), a T-shaped structure (TSS) near its 3' end, and a Barley yellow dwarf virus-like translation element (BTE) in the central region. Only the BTE is functional in luciferase reporter constructs containing gRNA or sgRNA2 5' sequences in vivo, which differs from how umbravirus 3' CITEs were used in a previous study. Similarly to most 3' CITEs, the OPMV BTE links to the 5' end via a long-distance RNA-RNA interaction. Analysis of 14 BTEs revealed additional conserved sequences and structural features beyond the previously identified 17-nt conserved sequence.IMPORTANCE Opium poppy mosaic virus (OPMV) is an umbravirus in the family Tombusviridae We determined that OPMV accumulates two similarly sized subgenomic RNAs (sgRNAs), with the smaller known to code for proteins expressed from overlapping open reading frames. The slightly larger sgRNA1 has a 5' end just upstream from a previously predicted xrRNA_D site, identifying this sgRNA as an unusually long product produced by exoribonuclease trimming. Although four umbraviruses have similar predicted xrRNA_D sites, only sgRNA1 of OPMV can code for a protein that is an extension product of umbravirus ORF4. Inability to generate the sgRNA or translate this protein was associated with reduced gRNA accumulation in vivo We also characterized the OPMV BTE structure, a 3' cap-independent translation enhancer (3' CITE). Comparisons of 13 BTEs with the OPMV BTE revealed additional stretches of sequence similarity beyond the 17-nt signature sequence, as well as conserved structural features not previously recognized in these 3' CITEs.

Long Noncoding RNAs in Plant Viroids and Viruses: A Review

Infectious long-noncoding (lnc) RNAs related to plants can be of both viral and non-viral origin. Viroids are infectious plant lncRNAs that are not related to viruses and carry the circular, single-stranded, non-coding RNAs that replicate with host enzymatic activities via a rolling circle mechanism. Viroids interact with host processes in complex ways, emerging as one of the most productive tools for studying the functions of lncRNAs. Defective (D) RNAs, another category of lnc RNAs, are found in a variety of plant RNA viruses, most of which are noncoding. These are derived from and are replicated by the helper virus. D RNA-virus interactions evolve into mutually beneficial combinations, enhancing virus fitness via competitive advantages of moderated symptoms. Yet the satellite RNAs are single-stranded and include either large linear protein-coding ss RNAs, small linear ss RNAs, or small circular ss RNAs (virusoids). The satellite RNAs lack sequence homology to the helper virus, but unlike viroids need a helper virus to replicate and encapsidate. They can attenuate symptoms via RNA silencing and enhancement of host defense, but some can be lethal as RNA silencing suppressor antagonists. Moreover, selected viruses produce lncRNAs by incomplete degradation of genomic RNAs. They do not replicate but may impact viral infection, gene regulation, and cellular functions. Finally, the host plant lncRNAs can also contribute during plant-virus interactions, inducing plant defense and the regulation of gene expression, often in conjunction with micro and/or circRNAs.

Modulation of disease severity by plant positive-strand RNA viruses: The complex interplay of multifunctional viral proteins, subviral RNAs and virus-associated RNAs with plant signaling pathways and defense responses

Plant viruses induce a range of symptoms of varying intensity, ranging from severe systemic necrosis to mild or asymptomatic infection. Several evolutionary constraints drive virus virulence, including the dependence of viruses on host factors to complete their infection cycle, the requirement to counteract or evade plant antiviral defense responses and the mode of virus transmission. Viruses have developed an array of strategies to modulate disease severity. Accumulating evidence has highlighted not only the multifunctional role that viral proteins play in disrupting or highjacking plant factors, hormone signaling pathways and intracellular organelles, but also the interaction networks between viral proteins, subviral RNAs and/or other viral-associated RNAs that regulate disease severity. This review focusses on positive-strand RNA viruses, which constitute the majority of characterized plant viruses. Using well-characterized viruses with different genome types as examples, recent advances are discussed as well as knowledge gaps and opportunities for further research.

A rapid and simple quantitative method for specific detection of smaller coterminal RNA by PCR (DeSCo-PCR): application to the detection of viral subgenomic RNAs

RNAs that are 5'-truncated versions of a longer RNA but share the same 3' terminus can be generated by alternative promoters in transcription of cellular mRNAs or by replicating RNA viruses. These truncated RNAs cannot be distinguished from the longer RNA by a simple two-primer RT-PCR because primers that anneal to the cDNA from the smaller RNA also anneal to-and amplify-the longer RNA-derived cDNA. Thus, laborious methods, such as northern blot hybridization, are used to distinguish shorter from longer RNAs. For rapid, low-cost, and specific detection of these truncated RNAs, we report detection of smaller coterminal RNA by PCR (DeSCo-PCR). DeSCo-PCR uses a nonextendable blocking primer (BP), which outcompetes a forward primer (FP) for annealing to longer RNA-derived cDNA, while FP outcompetes BP for annealing to shorter RNA-derived cDNA. In the presence of BP, FP, and the reverse primer, only cDNA from the shorter RNA is amplified in a single-tube reaction containing both RNAs. Many positive strand RNA viruses generate 5'-truncated forms of the genomic RNA (gRNA) called subgenomic RNAs (sgRNA), which play key roles in viral gene expression and pathogenicity. We demonstrate that DeSCo-PCR is easily optimized to selectively detect relative quantities of sgRNAs of red clover necrotic mosaic virus from plants and Zika virus from human cells, each infected with viral strains that generate different amounts of sgRNA. This technique should be readily adaptable to other sgRNA-producing viruses, and for quantitative detection of any truncated or alternatively spliced RNA.

Hijacking of host cellular components as proviral factors by plant-infecting viruses

Plant viruses are important pathogens that cause serious crop losses worldwide. They are obligate intracellular parasites that commandeer a wide array of proteins, as well as metabolic resources, from infected host cells. In the past two decades, our knowledge of plant-virus interactions at the molecular level has exploded, which provides insights into how plant-infecting viruses co-opt host cellular machineries to accomplish their infection. Here, we review recent advances in our understanding of how plant viruses divert cellular components from their original roles to proviral functions. One emerging theme is that plant viruses have versatile strategies that integrate a host factor that is normally engaged in plant defense against invading pathogens into a viral protein complex that facilitates viral infection. We also highlight viral manipulation of cellular key regulatory systems for successful virus infection: posttranslational protein modifications for fine control of viral and cellular protein dynamics; glycolysis and fermentation pathways to usurp host resources, and ion homeostasis to create a cellular environment that is beneficial for viral genome replication. A deeper understanding of viral-infection strategies will pave the way for the development of novel antiviral strategies.

Application of a Reverse Genetic System for Beet Necrotic Yellow Vein Virus to Study Rz1 Resistance Response in Sugar Beet

Beet necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV) is causal agent of rhizomania disease, which is the most devastating viral disease in sugar beet production leading to a dramatic reduction in beet yield and sugar content. The virus is transmitted by the ubiquitous distributed soil-borne plasmodiophoromycete Polymyxa betae that infects the root tissue of young sugar beet plants. Rz1 is the major resistance gene widely used in most sugar beet varieties to control BNYVV. The strong selection pressure on the virus population promoted the development of strains that can overcome Rz1 resistance. Resistance-breaking has been associated with mutations in the RNA3-encoded pathogenicity factor P25 at amino acid positions 67-70 (tetrad) as well as with the presence of an additional RNA component (RNA5). However, respective studies investigating the resistance-breaking mechanism by a reverse genetic system are rather scarce. Therefore, we studied Rz1 resistance-breaking in sugar beet using a recently developed infectious clone of BNYVV A-type. A vector free infection system for the inoculation of young sugar beet seedlings was established. This assay allowed a clear separation between a susceptible and a Rz1 resistant genotype by measuring the virus content in lateral roots at 52 dpi. However, mechanical inoculation of sugar beet leaves led to the occurrence of genotype independent local lesions, suggesting that Rz1 mediates a root specific resistance toward BNYVV that is not active in leaves. Mutation analysis demonstrated that different motifs within the P25 tetrad enable increased virus replication in roots of the resistant genotype. The resistance-breaking ability was further confirmed by the visualization of BNYVV in lateral roots and leaves using a fluorescent-labeled complementary DNA clone of RNA2. Apart from that, reassortment experiments evidenced that RNA5 enables Rz1 resistance-breaking independent of the P25 tetrad motif. Finally, we could identify a new resistance-breaking mutation, which was selected by high-throughput sequencing of a clonal virus population after one host passage in a resistant genotype. Our results demonstrate the feasibility of the reverse genetic system for resistance-breaking analysis and illustrates the genome plasticity of BNYVV allowing the virus to adapt rapidly to sugar beet resistance traits.

A 212-nt long RNA structure in the Tobacco necrosis virus-D RNA genome is resistant to Xrn degradation

Plus-strand RNA viruses can accumulate viral RNA degradation products during infections. Some of these decay intermediates are generated by the cytosolic 5'-to-3' exoribonuclease Xrn1 (mammals and yeast) or Xrn4 (plants) and are formed when the enzyme stalls on substrate RNAs upon encountering inhibitory RNA structures. Many Xrn-generated RNAs correspond to 3'-terminal segments within the 3'-UTR of viral genomes and perform important functions during infections. Here we have investigated a 3'-terminal small viral RNA (svRNA) generated by Xrn during infections with Tobacco necrosis virus-D (family Tombusviridae). Our results indicate that (i) unlike known stalling RNA structures that are compact and modular, the TNV-D structure encompasses the entire 212 nt of the svRNA and is not functionally transposable, (ii) at least two tertiary interactions within the RNA structure are required for effective Xrn blocking and (iii) most of the svRNA generated in infections is derived from viral polymerase-generated subgenomic mRNA1. In vitro and in vivo analyses allowed for inferences on roles for the svRNA. Our findings provide a new and distinct addition to the growing list of Xrn-resistant viral RNAs and stalling structures found associated with different plant and animal RNA viruses.

Structural features of an Xrn1-resistant plant virus RNA

Xrn1 is a major 5ʹ-3ʹ exoribonuclease involved in the RNA metabolism of many eukaryotic species. RNA viruses have evolved ways to thwart Xrn1 in order to produce subgenomic non-coding RNA that affects the hosts RNA metabolism. The 3ʹ untranslated region of several beny- and cucumovirus RNAs harbors a so-called ‘coremin’ motif that is required for Xrn1 stalling. The structural features of this motif have not been studied in detail yet. Here, by using in vitro Xrn1 degradation assays, we tested over 50 different RNA constructs based on the Beet necrotic yellow vein virus sequence to deduce putative structural features responsible for Xrn1 stalling. We demonstrated that the minimal benyvirus stalling site consists of two hairpins of 3 and 4 base pairs respectively. The 5ʹ proximal hairpin requires a YGAD (Y = U/C, D = G/A/U) consensus loop sequence, whereas the 3ʹ proximal hairpin loop sequence is variable. The sequence of the 10-nucleotide spacer that separates the hairpins is highly conserved and potentially involved in tertiary interactions. Similar coremin motifs were identified in plant virus isolates from other families including Betaflexiviridae, Virgaviridae, Potyviridae and Secoviridae (order of the Picornavirales). We conclude that Xrn1-stalling motifs are more widespread among RNA viruses than previously realized.

Fluorescent labelling of Beet necrotic yellow vein virus and Beet soil-borne mosaic virus for co- and superinfection experiments in Nicotiana benthamiana

Infectious full-length clones of Beet necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV) and Beet soil-borne mosaic virus (BSBMV), both genus Benyvirus, were used for fluorescent labelling with the objective to study their interaction in coinfection and superinfection experiments. Fluorescent labelling was achieved by replacing a part of the RNA2 encoded coat protein read-through domain with either GFP or mRFP fluorescent marker proteins. This resulted in a translational fusion comprising the coat and the fluorescent protein. The labelled viruses were infectious and moved systemically in Nicotiana benthamiana, producing wild-type-like symptoms. Virus particles could be observed by electron microscopy, demonstrating that the viral read-through domain is dispensable for particle formation. Coinfection experiments revealed a spatial separation of differentially labelled populations of both identical and different Benyvirus species after N. benthamiana agro-inoculation. Identical observations were obtained when Tobacco rattle virus (TRV) was differentially labelled and used for coinfection. In contrast, coinfections of BSBMV with Potato virus X (PVX) or TRV resulted in many co-infected cells lacking spatial separation. Micro-projectile co-bombardment of N. benthamiana leaves revealed that two differently labelled populations of the same virus co-infected only a few cells before starting to separate. In superinfection experiments with N. benthamiana, BSBMV and BNYVV were unable to establish a secondary infection in plants that were previously infected with BNYVV or BSBMV. Taken together, this is the first work to describe the interaction between two economically important Benyviruses using fluorescence-labelled full-length clones.

A folded viral noncoding RNA blocks host cell exoribonucleases through a conformationally dynamic RNA structure

Folded RNA elements that block processive 5' → 3' cellular exoribonucleases (xrRNAs) to produce biologically active viral noncoding RNAs have been discovered in flaviviruses, potentially revealing a new mode of RNA maturation. However, whether this RNA structure-dependent mechanism exists elsewhere and, if so, whether a singular RNA fold is required, have been unclear. Here we demonstrate the existence of authentic RNA structure-dependent xrRNAs in dianthoviruses, plant-infecting viruses unrelated to animal-infecting flaviviruses. These xrRNAs have no sequence similarity to known xrRNAs; thus, we used a combination of biochemistry and virology to characterize their sequence requirements and mechanism of stopping exoribonucleases. By solving the structure of a dianthovirus xrRNA by X-ray crystallography, we reveal a complex fold that is very different from that of the flavivirus xrRNAs. However, both versions of xrRNAs contain a unique topological feature, a pseudoknot that creates a protective ring around the 5' end of the RNA structure; this may be a defining structural feature of xrRNAs. Single-molecule FRET experiments reveal that the dianthovirus xrRNAs undergo conformational changes and can use "codegradational remodeling," exploiting the exoribonucleases' degradation-linked helicase activity to help form their resistant structure; such a mechanism has not previously been reported. Convergent evolution has created RNA structure-dependent exoribonuclease resistance in different contexts, which establishes it as a general RNA maturation mechanism and defines xrRNAs as an authentic functional class of RNAs.

Beet Necrotic Yellow Vein Virus Noncoding RNA Production Depends on a 5'→3' Xrn Exoribonuclease Activity

The RNA3 species of the beet necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV), a multipartite positive-stranded RNA phytovirus, contains the 'core' nucleotide sequence required for its systemic movement in Beta macrocarpa. Within this 'core' sequence resides a conserved "coremin" motif of 20 nucleotides that is absolutely essential for long-distance movement. RNA3 undergoes processing steps to yield a noncoding RNA3 (ncRNA3) possessing "coremin" at its 5' end, a mandatory element for ncRNA3 accumulation. Expression of wild-type (wt) or mutated RNA3 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae allows for the accumulation of ncRNA3 species. Screening of S.cerevisiae ribonuclease mutants identified the 5'-to-3' exoribonuclease Xrn1 as a key enzyme in RNA3 processing that was recapitulated both in vitro and in insect cell extracts. Xrn1 stalled on ncRNA3-containing RNA substrates in these decay assays in a similar fashion as the flavivirus Xrn1-resistant structure (sfRNA). Substitution of the BNYVV-RNA3 'core' sequence by the sfRNA sequence led to the accumulation of an ncRNA species in yeast in vitro but not in planta and no viral long distance occurred. Interestingly, XRN4 knockdown reduced BNYVV RNA accumulation suggesting a dual role for the ribonuclease in the viral cycle.

Biological properties of Beet soil-borne mosaic virus and Beet necrotic yellow vein virus cDNA clones produced by isothermal in vitro recombination: Insights for reassortant appearance

Two members of the Benyviridae family and genus Benyvirus, Beet soil-borne mosaic virus (BSBMV) and Beet necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV), possess identical genome organization, host range and high sequence similarity; they infect Beta vulgaris with variable symptom expression. In the US, mixed infections are described with limited information about viral interactions. Vectors suitable for agroinoculation of all genome components of both viruses were constructed by isothermal in vitro recombination. All 35S promoter-driven cDNA clones allowed production of recombinant viruses competent for Nicotiana benthamiana and Beta macrocarpa systemic infection and Polymyxa betae transmission and were compared to available BNYVV B-type clone. BNYVV and BSBMV RNA1 + 2 reassortants were viable and spread long-distance in N. benthamiana with symptoms dependent on the BNYVV type. Small genomic RNAs were exchangeable and systemically infected B. macrocarpa. These infectious clones represent a powerful tool for the identification of specific molecular host-pathogen determinants.

ICTV Virus Taxonomy Profile: Benyviridae

The Benyviridae is a family of multipartite plant viruses with rod-shaped virions. Genomes are segmented and comprised of single-stranded, positive-sense RNAs, each with a 5' m7G cap. Unlike rod-shaped viruses classified in the Virgaviridae family, the genome segments have a 3' polyA tract and there is post-translational cleavage of the viral replicase. The better-known members are transmitted by root-infecting vectors in the Plasmodiphorales family, once described as fungi but now classified as Cercozoa. The family has a single genus. This is a summary of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) Report on the taxonomy of Benyviridae, which is available at www.ictv.global/report/benyviridae.

A Viral Noncoding RNA Complements a Weakened Viral RNA Silencing Suppressor and Promotes Efficient Systemic Host Infection

Systemic movement of beet necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV) in Beta macrocarpa depends on viral RNA3, whereas in Nicotiana benthamiana this RNA is dispensable. RNA3 contains a coremin motif of 20 nucleotides essential for the stabilization of noncoding RNA3 (ncRNA3) and for long-distance movement in Beta species. Coremin mutants that are unable to accumulate ncRNA3 also do not achieve systemic movement in Beta species. A mutant virus carrying a mutation in the p14 viral suppressor of RNA silencing (VSR), unable to move long distances, can be complemented with the ncRNA3 in the lesion phenotype, viral RNA accumulation, and systemic spread. Analyses of the BNYVV VSR mechanism of action led to the identification of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase 6 (RDR6) pathway as a target of the virus VSR and the assignment of a VSR function to the ncRNA3.

Transfer RNA maturation in Chlamydomonas mitochondria, chloroplast and the nucleus by a single RNase P protein

The maturation of tRNA precursors involves the 5' cleavage of leader sequences by an essential endonuclease called RNase P. Beyond the ancestral ribonucleoprotein (RNP) RNase P, a second type of RNase P called PRORP (protein-only RNase P) evolved in eukaryotes. The current view on the distribution of RNase P in cells is that multiple RNPs, multiple PRORPs or a combination of both, perform specialised RNase P activities in the different compartments where gene expression occurs. Here, we identify a single gene encoding PRORP in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii while no RNP is found. We show that its product, CrPRORP, is triple-localised to mitochondria, the chloroplast and the nucleus. Its downregulation results in impaired tRNA biogenesis in both organelles and the nucleus. CrPRORP, as a single-subunit RNase P for an entire organism, makes up the most compact and versatile RNase P machinery described in either prokaryotes or eukaryotes.

Characterization of a Novel Megabirnavirus from Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Reveals Horizontal Gene Transfer from Single-Stranded RNA Virus to Double-Stranded RNA Virus

Mycoviruses have been detected in all major groups of filamentous fungi, and their study represents an important branch of virology. Here, we characterized a novel double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) mycovirus, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum megabirnavirus 1 (SsMBV1), in an apparently hypovirulent strain (SX466) of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Two similarly sized dsRNA segments (L1- and L2-dsRNA), the genome of SsMBV1, are packaged in rigid spherical particles purified from strain SX466. The full-length cDNA sequence of L1-dsRNA/SsMBV1 comprises two large open reading frames (ORF1 and ORF2), which encode a putative coat protein and an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), respectively. Phylogenetic analysis of the RdRp domain clearly indicates that SsMBV1 is related to Rosellinia necatrix megabirnavirus 1 (RnMBV1). L2-dsRNA/SsMBV1 comprises two nonoverlapping ORFs (ORFA and ORFB) encoding two hypothetical proteins with unknown functions. The 5'-terminal regions of L1- and L2-dsRNA/SsMBV1 share strictly conserved sequences and form stable stem-loop structures. Although L2-dsRNA/SsMBV1 is dispensable for replication, genome packaging, and pathogenicity of SsMBV1, it enhances transcript accumulation of L1-dsRNA/SsMBV1 and stability of virus-like particles (VLPs). Interestingly, a conserved papain-like protease domain similar to a multifunctional protein (p29) of Cryphonectria hypovirus 1 was detected in the ORFA-encoded protein of L2-dsRNA/SsMBV1. Phylogenetic analysis based on the protease domain suggests that horizontal gene transfer may have occurred from a single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) virus (hypovirus) to a dsRNA virus, SsMBV1. Our results reveal that SsMBV1 has a slight impact on the fundamental biological characteristics of its host regardless of the presence or absence of L2-dsRNA/SsMBV1.

IMPORTANCE

Mycoviruses are widespread in all major fungal groups, and they possess diverse genomes of mostly ssRNA and dsRNA and, recently, circular ssDNA. Here, we have characterized a novel dsRNA virus (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum megabirnavirus 1 [SsMBV1]) that was isolated from an apparently hypovirulent strain, SX466, of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Although SsMBV1 is phylogenetically related to RnMBV1, SsMBV1 is markedly distinct from other reported megabirnaviruses with two features of VLPs and conserved domains. Our results convincingly showed that SsMBV1 is viable in the absence of L2-dsRNA/SsMBV1 (a potential large satellite-like RNA or genuine genomic virus component). More interestingly, we detected a conserved papain-like protease domain that commonly exists in ssRNA viruses, including members of the families Potyviridae and Hypoviridae. Phylogenetic analysis based on the protease domain suggests that horizontal gene transfer might have occurred from an ssRNA virus to a dsRNA virus, which may provide new insights into the evolutionary history of dsRNA and ssRNA viruses.

Infectious long non-coding RNAs

Long non protein coding RNAs (lncRNAs) constitute a large category of the RNA world, able to regulate different biological processes. In this review we are focusing on infectious lncRNAs, their classification, pathogenesis and impact on the infected organisms. Here they are presented in two separate groups: 'dependent lncRNAs' (comprising satellites RNA, Hepatitis D virus and lncRNAs of viral origin) which need a helper virus and 'independent lncRNAs' (viroids) that can self-replicate. Even though these lncRNA do not encode any protein, their structure and/or sequence comprise all the necessary information to drive specific interactions with host factors and regulate several cellular functions. These new data that have emerged during the last few years concerning lncRNAs modify the way we understand molecular biology's 'central dogma' and give new perspectives for applications and potential therapeutic strategies.

Infection of Beet necrotic yellow vein virus with RNA4-encoded P31 specifically up-regulates pathogenesis-related protein 10 in Nicotiana benthamiana

BACKGROUND

Beet necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV) is the infectious agent of sugar beet rhizomania, which consists of four or five plus-sense RNAs. RNA4 of BNYVV is not essential for virus propagation in Nicotiana benthamiana but has a major effect on symptom expression. Early reports showed that RNA4-encoded P31 was associated with severe symptoms, such as curling and dwarfing, in N. benthamiana.

RESULTS

We discovered that the pathogenesis-related protein 10 (PR-10) gene can be up-regulated in BNYVV-infected N. benthamiana in the presence of RNA4 and that it had a close link with symptom development. Our frame-shift, deletion and substitution analysis showed that only the entire P31 could induce PR-10 up-regulation during BNYVV infection and that all the tryptophans and six cysteines (C174, C183, C186, C190, C197 and C199) in the cysteine-rich P31 had significant effects on PR-10 expression. However, P31 could not interact directly with PR-10 in yeast.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data demonstrated that only integrated P31 specifically induced PR-10 transcription, which coincided closely with the appearance of severe symptoms in BNYVV-infected N. benthamiana, although they could not interact directly with each other in yeast.

Arthropod viruses and small RNAs

The recently characterized small RNAs provide a new paradigm for physiological studies. These molecules have been shown to be integral players in processes as diverse as development and innate immunity against bacteria and viruses in eukaryotes. Several of the well-characterized small RNAs including small interfering RNAs, microRNAs and PIWI-interacting RNAs are emerging as important players in mediating arthropod host-virus interactions. Understanding the role of small RNAs in arthropod host-virus molecular interactions will facilitate manipulation of these pathways for both management of arthropod pests of agricultural and medical importance, and for protection of beneficial arthropods such as honey bees and shrimp. This review highlights recent research on the role of small RNAs in arthropod host-virus interactions with reference to other host-pathogen systems.

Viral and cellular factors involved in Phloem transport of plant viruses

Phloem transport of plant viruses is an essential step in the setting-up of a complete infection of a host plant. After an initial replication step in the first cells, viruses spread from cell-to-cell through mesophyll cells, until they reach the vasculature where they rapidly move to distant sites in order to establish the infection of the whole plant. This last step is referred to as systemic transport, or long-distance movement, and involves virus crossings through several cellular barriers: bundle sheath, vascular parenchyma, and companion cells for virus loading into sieve elements (SE). Viruses are then passively transported within the source-to-sink flow of photoassimilates and are unloaded from SE into sink tissues. However, the molecular mechanisms governing virus long-distance movement are far from being understood. While most viruses seem to move systemically as virus particles, some viruses are transported in SE as viral ribonucleoprotein complexes (RNP). The nature of the cellular and viral factors constituting these RNPs is still poorly known. The topic of this review will mainly focus on the host and viral factors that facilitate or restrict virus long-distance movement.

Agroinoculation of Beet necrotic yellow vein virus cDNA clones results in plant systemic infection and efficient Polymyxa betae transmission

Agroinoculation is a quick and easy method for the infection of plants with viruses. This method involves the infiltration of tissue with a suspension of Agrobacterium tumefaciens carrying binary plasmids harbouring full-length cDNA copies of viral genome components. When transferred into host cells, transcription of the cDNA produces RNA copies of the viral genome that initiate infection. We produced full-length cDNA corresponding to Beet necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV) RNAs and derived replicon vectors expressing viral and fluorescent proteins in pJL89 binary plasmid under the control of the Cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter. We infected Nicotiana benthamiana and Beta macrocarpa plants with BNYVV by leaf agroinfiltration of combinations of agrobacteria carrying full-length cDNA clones of BNYVV RNAs. We validated the ability of agroclones to reproduce a complete viral cycle, from replication to cell-to-cell and systemic movement and, finally, plant-to-plant transmission by its plasmodiophorid vector. We also showed successful root agroinfection of B. vulgaris, a new tool for the assay of resistance to rhizomania, the sugar beet disease caused by BNYVV.

The benyvirus RNA silencing suppressor is essential for long-distance movement, requires both zinc-finger and NoLS basic residues but not a nucleolar localization for its silencing-suppression activity

The RNA silencing-suppression properties of Beet necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV) and Beet soil-borne mosaic virus (BSBMV) cysteine-rich p14 proteins have been investigated. Suppression of RNA silencing activities were made evident using viral infection of silenced Nicotiana benthamiana 16C, N. benthamiana agroinfiltrated with green fluorescent protein (GFP), and GF-FG hairpin triggers supplemented with viral suppressor of RNA silencing (VSR) constructs or using complementation of a silencing-suppressor-defective BNYVV virus in Chenopodium quinoa. Northern blot analyses of small-interfering RNAs (siRNAs) in agroinfiltration tests revealed reduced amounts of siRNA, especially secondary siRNA, suggesting that benyvirus VSR act downstream of the siRNA production. Using confocal laser-scanning microscopy imaging of infected protoplasts expressing functional p14 protein fused to an enhanced GFP reporter, we showed that benyvirus p14 accumulated in the nucleolus and the cytoplasm independently of other viral factors. Site-directed mutagenesis showed the importance of the nucleolar localization signal embedded in a C4 zinc-finger domain in the VSR function and intrinsic stability of the p14 protein. Conversely, RNA silencing suppression appeared independent of the nucleolar localization of the protein, and a correlation between BNYVV VSR expression and long-distance movement was established.

Molecular biology and epidemiology of dianthoviruses

The genus Dianthovirus is one of eight genera in the family Tombusviridae. All the genera have monopartite positive-stranded RNA genomes, except the dianthoviruses which have bipartite genomes. The dianthoviruses are distributed worldwide. Although they share common structural features with the other Tombusviridae viruses in their virions and the terminal structure of the genomic RNAs, the bipartite nature of the dianthovirus genome offers an ideal experimental system with which to study basic issues of virology. The two genomic RNAs seem to use distinct strategies to regulate their translation, transcription, genome replication, genome packaging, and cell-to-cell movement during infection. This review summarizes the current state of our knowledge of the dianthoviruses, with its main emphasis on the molecular biology of the virus, including the viral and host factors required for its infection of host plants. The epidemiology of the virus and the possible viral impacts on agriculture and the environment are also discussed.

A noncoding RNA produced by arthropod-borne flaviviruses inhibits the cellular exoribonuclease XRN1 and alters host mRNA stability

All arthropod-borne flaviviruses generate a short noncoding RNA (sfRNA) from the viral 3' untranslated region during infection due to stalling of the cellular 5'-to-3' exonuclease XRN1. We show here that formation of sfRNA also inhibits XRN1 activity. Cells infected with Dengue or Kunjin viruses accumulate uncapped mRNAs, decay intermediates normally targeted by XRN1. XRN1 repression also resulted in the increased overall stability of cellular mRNAs in flavivirus-infected cells. Importantly, a mutant Kunjin virus that cannot form sfRNA but replicates to normal levels failed to affect host mRNA stability or XRN1 activity. Expression of sfRNA in the absence of viral infection demonstrated that sfRNA formation was directly responsible for the stabilization of cellular mRNAs. Finally, numerous cellular mRNAs were differentially expressed in an sfRNA-dependent fashion in a Kunjin virus infection. We conclude that flaviviruses incapacitate XRN1 during infection and dysregulate host mRNA stability as a result of sfRNA formation.