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Fayed MR, Ghandour K, Inokuchi K. Sleep and quiet wakefulness signify an idling brain hub for creative insights. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2024; 379:20230226. [PMID: 38853559 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2023.0226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Long-term potentiation of synaptic strength is a fundamental aspect of learning and memory. Memories are believed to be stored within specific populations of neurons known as engram cells, which are subsequently reactivated during sleep, facilitating the consolidation of stored information. However, sleep and offline reactivations are associated not only with past experiences but also with anticipation of future events. During periods of offline reactivation, which occur during sleep and quiet wakefulness, the brain exhibits a capability to form novel connections. This process links various past experiences, often leading to the emergence of qualitatively new information that was not initially available. Brain activity during sleep and quiet wakefulness is referred to as the 'idling brain'. Idling brain activity is believed to play a pivotal role in abstracting essential information, comprehending underlying rules, generating creative ideas and fostering insightful thoughts. In this review, we will explore the current state of research and future directions in understanding how sleep and idling brain activity are interconnected with various cognitive functions, especially creative insights. These insights have profound implications for our daily lives, impacting our ability to process information, make decisions and navigate complex situations effectively. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Long-term potentiation: 50 years on'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mostafa R Fayed
- Research Centre for Idling Brain Science, University of Toyama , Toyama 930-0194, Japan
- Department of Biochemistry, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama , Toyama 930-0194, Japan
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Kafrelsheikh University , Kafrelsheikh 33516, Egypt
| | - Khaled Ghandour
- Research Centre for Idling Brain Science, University of Toyama , Toyama 930-0194, Japan
- Department of Biochemistry, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama , Toyama 930-0194, Japan
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University , Cairo 11562, Egypt
| | - Kaoru Inokuchi
- Research Centre for Idling Brain Science, University of Toyama , Toyama 930-0194, Japan
- Department of Biochemistry, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama , Toyama 930-0194, Japan
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2
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Sekeres MJ, Schomaker J, Nadel L, Tse D. To update or to create? The influence of novelty and prior knowledge on memory networks. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2024; 379:20230238. [PMID: 38853571 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2023.0238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Schemas are foundational mental structures shaped by experience. They influence behaviour, guide the encoding of new memories and are shaped by associated information. The adaptability of memory schemas facilitates the integration of new information that aligns with existing knowledge structures. First, we discuss how novel information consistent with an existing schema can be swiftly assimilated when presented. This cognitive updating is facilitated by the interaction between the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex. Second, when novel information is inconsistent with the schema, it likely engages the hippocampus to encode the information as part of an episodic memory trace. Third, novelty may enhance hippocampal dopamine through either the locus coeruleus or ventral tegmental area pathways, with the pathway involved potentially depending on the type of novelty encountered. We propose a gradient theory of schema and novelty to elucidate the neural processes by which schema updating or novel memory traces are formed. It is likely that experiences vary along a familiarity-novelty continuum, and the degree to which new experiences are increasingly novel will guide whether memory for a new experience either integrates into an existing schema or prompts the creation of a new cognitive framework. This article is part of the theme issue 'Long-term potentiation: 50 years on'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie J Sekeres
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa , Ottawa, Ontario K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Judith Schomaker
- Health, Medical & Neuropsychology, Leiden University , Leiden 2333 AK, The Netherlands
- Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition , Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Lynn Nadel
- Department of Psychology, University of Arizona , Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Dorothy Tse
- Department of Psychology, Edge Hill University , Ormskirk L39 4QP, UK
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3
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Fenerci C, Adjei B, Sheldon S. Remembering what we imagine: the role of event schemas in shaping how imagined autobiographical events are recalled. Learn Mem 2024; 31:a053993. [PMID: 38688723 PMCID: PMC11098456 DOI: 10.1101/lm.053993.124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Much like recalling autobiographical memories, constructing imagined autobiographical events depends on episodic memory processes. The ability to imagine events contributes to several future-oriented behaviors (e.g., decision-making, problem solving), which relies, in part, on the ability to remember the imagined events. A factor affecting the memorability of such events is their adherence to event schemas-conceptualizations of how events generally unfold. In the current study, we examined how two aspects of event schemas-event expectancy and familiarity-affect the ability to recall imagined events. Participants first imagined and described in detail autobiographical events that either aligned with or deviated from an event, expected to occur in a context (e.g., a kitchen) that was either familiar or unfamiliar. This resulted in imaginations ranging from maximally schema-congruent (expected events in a familiar context) to maximally novel (unexpected events in an unfamiliar context). Twenty-four hours later, participants recalled these imagined events. Recollections were scored for the number of reinstated details from the imaginations and the number of newly added details. We found greater reinstatement of details for both the maximally congruent and maximally novel events, while maximally novel events were recalled more precisely than other events (i.e., fewer added details). Our results indicate a complementary benefit to remembering schematic and novel imagined events, which may guide equally important but distinct future-oriented behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Can Fenerci
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1G1, Canada
| | - Bianca Adjei
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1G1, Canada
| | - Signy Sheldon
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1G1, Canada
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4
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Akter M, Hasan M, Ramkrishnan AS, Iqbal Z, Zheng X, Fu Z, Lei Z, Karim A, Li Y. Astrocyte and L-lactate in the anterior cingulate cortex modulate schema memory and neuronal mitochondrial biogenesis. eLife 2023; 12:e85751. [PMID: 37960975 PMCID: PMC10645423 DOI: 10.7554/elife.85751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Astrocyte-derived L-lactate was shown to confer beneficial effects on synaptic plasticity and cognitive functions. However, how astrocytic Gi signaling in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) modulates L-lactate levels and schema memory is not clear. Here, using chemogenetic approach and well-established behavioral paradigm, we demonstrate that astrocytic Gi pathway activation in the ACC causes significant impairments in flavor-place paired associates (PAs) learning, schema formation, and PA memory retrieval in rats. It also impairs new PA learning even if a prior associative schema exists. These impairments are mediated by decreased L-lactate in the ACC due to astrocytic Gi activation. Concurrent exogenous L-lactate administration bilaterally into the ACC rescues these impairments. Furthermore, we show that the impaired schema memory formation is associated with a decreased neuronal mitochondrial biogenesis caused by decreased L-lactate level in the ACC upon astrocytic Gi activation. Our study also reveals that L-lactate-mediated mitochondrial biogenesis is dependent on monocarboxylate transporter 2 (MCT2) and NMDA receptor activity - discovering a previously unrecognized signaling role of L-lactate. These findings expand our understanding of the role of astrocytes and L-lactate in the brain functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mastura Akter
- Department of Neuroscience, City University of Hong KongHong Kong SARChina
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong KongHong Kong SARChina
| | - Mahadi Hasan
- Department of Neuroscience, City University of Hong KongHong Kong SARChina
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong KongHong Kong SARChina
| | - Aruna Surendran Ramkrishnan
- Department of Neuroscience, City University of Hong KongHong Kong SARChina
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong KongHong Kong SARChina
| | - Zafar Iqbal
- Department of Neuroscience, City University of Hong KongHong Kong SARChina
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong KongHong Kong SARChina
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine and Health, Hong Kong Institute of Science & Innovation, Chinese Academy of SciencesHong Kong SARChina
| | - Xianlin Zheng
- Department of Neuroscience, City University of Hong KongHong Kong SARChina
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong KongHong Kong SARChina
| | - Zhongqi Fu
- Department of Neuroscience, City University of Hong KongHong Kong SARChina
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine and Health, Hong Kong Institute of Science & Innovation, Chinese Academy of SciencesHong Kong SARChina
| | - Zhuogui Lei
- Department of Neuroscience, City University of Hong KongHong Kong SARChina
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong KongHong Kong SARChina
| | - Anwarul Karim
- Department of Neuroscience, City University of Hong KongHong Kong SARChina
| | - Ying Li
- Department of Neuroscience, City University of Hong KongHong Kong SARChina
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong KongHong Kong SARChina
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine and Health, Hong Kong Institute of Science & Innovation, Chinese Academy of SciencesHong Kong SARChina
- Centre for Biosystems, Neuroscience, and Nanotechnology, City University of Hong KongHong Kong SARChina
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5
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Bein O, Gasser C, Amer T, Maril A, Davachi L. Predictions transform memories: How expected versus unexpected events are integrated or separated in memory. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 153:105368. [PMID: 37619645 PMCID: PMC10591973 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2023] [Revised: 08/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Our brains constantly generate predictions about the environment based on prior knowledge. Many of the events we experience are consistent with these predictions, while others might be inconsistent with prior knowledge and thus violate our predictions. To guide future behavior, the memory system must be able to strengthen, transform, or add to existing knowledge based on the accuracy of our predictions. We synthesize recent evidence suggesting that when an event is consistent with our predictions, it leads to neural integration between related memories, which is associated with enhanced associative memory, as well as memory biases. Prediction errors, in turn, can promote both neural integration and separation, and lead to multiple mnemonic outcomes. We review these findings and how they interact with factors such as memory reactivation, prediction error strength, and task goals, to offer insight into what determines memory for events that violate our predictions. In doing so, this review brings together recent neural and behavioral research to advance our understanding of how predictions shape memory, and why.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oded Bein
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, United States.
| | - Camille Gasser
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States.
| | - Tarek Amer
- Department of Psychology, University of Victoria, Victoria, Canada
| | - Anat Maril
- Department of Psychology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel; Department of Cognitive Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Lila Davachi
- Center for Clinical Research, The Nathan S. Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY, United States
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6
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Gros A, Wang SH. Cognitive rescue in aging through prior training in rats. Aging (Albany NY) 2023; 15:5990-6010. [PMID: 37338529 PMCID: PMC10373978 DOI: 10.18632/aging.204808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
Cognitive decline in spatial memory is seen in aging. Understanding affected processes in aging is vital for developing methods to improve wellbeing. Daily memory persistence can be influenced by events around the time of learning or by prior experiences in early life. Fading memories in young can last longer if a novel event is introduced around encoding, a process called behavioral tagging. Based on this principle, we asked what processes are affected in aging and if prior training can rescue them. Two groups of aged rats received training in an appetitive delayed matching-to-place task. One of the groups additionally received prior training of the same task in young and in mid-life, constituting a longitudinal study. The results showed long-term memory decline in late aging without prior training. This would reflect affected encoding and consolidation. On the other hand, short-term memory was preserved and novelty at memory reactivation and reconsolidation enabled memory maintenance in aging. Prior training improved cognition through facilitating task performance, strengthening short-term memory and intermediate memory, and enabling encoding-boosted long-term memory. Implication of these findings in understanding brain mechanisms in cognitive aging and in beneficial effects of prior training is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Gros
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Chancellor’s Building, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
| | - Szu-Han Wang
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Chancellor’s Building, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
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7
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Goudar V, Peysakhovich B, Freedman DJ, Buffalo EA, Wang XJ. Schema formation in a neural population subspace underlies learning-to-learn in flexible sensorimotor problem-solving. Nat Neurosci 2023; 26:879-890. [PMID: 37024575 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-023-01293-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
Abstract
Learning-to-learn, a progressive speedup of learning while solving a series of similar problems, represents a core process of knowledge acquisition that draws attention in both neuroscience and artificial intelligence. To investigate its underlying brain mechanism, we trained a recurrent neural network model on arbitrary sensorimotor mappings known to depend on the prefrontal cortex. The network displayed an exponential time course of accelerated learning. The neural substrate of a schema emerges within a low-dimensional subspace of population activity; its reuse in new problems facilitates learning by limiting connection weight changes. Our work highlights the weight-driven modifications of the vector field, which determines the population trajectory of a recurrent network and behavior. Such plasticity is especially important for preserving and reusing the learned schema in spite of undesirable changes of the vector field due to the transition to learning a new problem; the accumulated changes across problems account for the learning-to-learn dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vishwa Goudar
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - David J Freedman
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Buffalo
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
- Washington National Primate Research Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Xiao-Jing Wang
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, USA.
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8
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Abstract
A schema refers to a structured body of prior knowledge that captures common patterns across related experiences. Schemas have been studied separately in the realms of episodic memory and spatial navigation across different species and have been grounded in theories of memory consolidation, but there has been little attempt to integrate our understanding across domains, particularly in humans. We propose that experiences during navigation with many similarly structured environments give rise to the formation of spatial schemas (for example, the expected layout of modern cities) that share properties with but are distinct from cognitive maps (for example, the memory of a modern city) and event schemas (such as expected events in a modern city) at both cognitive and neural levels. We describe earlier theoretical frameworks and empirical findings relevant to spatial schemas, along with more targeted investigations of spatial schemas in human and non-human animals. Consideration of architecture and urban analytics, including the influence of scale and regionalization, on different properties of spatial schemas may provide a powerful approach to advance our understanding of spatial schemas.
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9
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Moscovitch M, Gilboa A. Has the concept of systems consolidation outlived its usefulness? Identification and evaluation of premises underlying systems consolidation. Fac Rev 2022; 11:33. [PMID: 36532709 PMCID: PMC9720899 DOI: 10.12703/r/11-33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Systems consolidation has mostly been treated as a neural construct defined by the time-dependent change in memory representation from the hippocampus (HPC) to other structures, primarily the neocortex. Here, we identify and evaluate the explicit and implicit premises that underlie traditional or standard models and theories of systems consolidation based on evidence from research on humans and other animals. We use the principle that changes in neural representation over time and experience are accompanied by corresponding changes in psychological representations, and vice versa, to argue that each of the premises underlying traditional or standard models and theories of systems consolidation is found wanting. One solution is to modify or abandon the premises or theories and models. This is reflected in moderated models of systems consolidation that emphasize the early role of the HPC in training neocortical memories until they stabilize. The fault, however, may lie in the very concept of systems consolidation and its defining feature. We propose that the concept be replaced by one of memory systems reorganization, which does not carry the theoretical baggage of systems consolidation and is flexible enough to capture the dynamic nature of memory from inception to very long-term retention and retrieval at a psychological and neural level. The term "memory system reorganization" implies that memory traces are not fixed, even after they are presumably consolidated. Memories can continue to change as a result of experience and interactions among memory systems across the lifetime. As will become clear, hippocampal training of neocortical memories is only one type of such interaction, and not always the most important one, even at inception. We end by suggesting some principles of memory reorganization that can help guide research on dynamic memory processes that capture corresponding changes in memory at the psychological and neural levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morris Moscovitch
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Asaf Gilboa
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
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10
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Schemas provide a scaffold for neocortical integration of new memories over time. Nat Commun 2022; 13:5795. [PMID: 36184668 PMCID: PMC9527246 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-33517-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Memory transformation is increasingly acknowledged in theoretical accounts of systems consolidation, yet how memory quality and neural representation change over time and how schemas influence this process remains unclear. We examined the behavioral quality and neural representation of schema-congruent and incongruent object-scene pairs retrieved across 10-minutes and 72-hours using fMRI. When a congruent schema was available, memory became coarser over time, aided by post-encoding coupling between the anterior hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Only schema-congruent representations were integrated in the mPFC over time, and were organized according to schematic context. In the hippocampus, pattern similarity changed across 72-hours such that the posterior hippocampus represented specific details and the anterior hippocampus represented the general context of specific memories, irrespective of congruency. Our findings suggest schemas are used as a scaffold to facilitate neocortical integration of congruent information, and illustrate evolution in hippocampal organization of detailed contextual memory over time.
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11
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Prior fear learning enables the rapid assimilation of new fear memories directly into cortical networks. PLoS Biol 2022; 20:e3001789. [PMID: 36178983 PMCID: PMC9555644 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Long-term memory formation involves the reorganization of brain circuits, termed system consolidation. Whether and how a prior fear experience influences system consolidation of new memories is poorly understood. In rats, we found that prior auditory fear learning allows the secondary auditory cortex to immediately encode new auditory memories, with these new memories purely requiring the activation of cellular mechanisms of synaptic consolidation within secondary auditory cortex. Similar results were obtained in the anterior cingulate cortex for contextual fear memories. Moreover, prior learning enabled connections from these cortices to the basolateral amygdala (BLA) to support recent memory retention. We propose that the reorganization of circuits that characterizes system consolidation occurs only in the first instance that an event is learned, subsequently allowing the immediate assimilation of new analogous events in final storage sites.
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12
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Abstract
Passive priming of prior knowledge to assimilate ongoing experiences underlies advanced cognitive processing. However, the necessary neural dynamics of memory assimilation remains elusive. Uninstructed brain could also show boosted creativity, particularly after idling states, yet it remains unclear whether the idling brain can spontaneously spark relevant knowledge assimilations. We established a paradigm that links/separates context-dependent memories according to geometrical similarities. Mice exploring one of four contexts 1 d before undergoing contextual fear conditioning in a square context showed a gradual fear transfer to preexposed geometrically relevant contexts the next day, but not after 15 min. Anterior cingulate cortex neurons representing relevant, rather than distinct, memories were significantly coreactivated during postconditioning sleep only, before their selective integration the next day during testing. Disrupting sleep coreactivations prevented assimilation while preserving recent memory consolidation. Thus, assimilating pertinent memories during sleep through coreactivation of their respective engrams represents the neural underpinnings of sleep-triggered implicit cortical learning.
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13
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Mair RG, Francoeur MJ, Krell EM, Gibson BM. Where Actions Meet Outcomes: Medial Prefrontal Cortex, Central Thalamus, and the Basal Ganglia. Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 16:928610. [PMID: 35864847 PMCID: PMC9294389 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.928610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) interacts with distributed networks that give rise to goal-directed behavior through afferent and efferent connections with multiple thalamic nuclei and recurrent basal ganglia-thalamocortical circuits. Recent studies have revealed individual roles for different thalamic nuclei: mediodorsal (MD) regulation of signaling properties in mPFC neurons, intralaminar control of cortico-basal ganglia networks, ventral medial facilitation of integrative motor function, and hippocampal functions supported by ventral midline and anterior nuclei. Large scale mapping studies have identified functionally distinct cortico-basal ganglia-thalamocortical subnetworks that provide a structural basis for understanding information processing and functional heterogeneity within the basal ganglia. Behavioral analyses comparing functional deficits produced by lesions or inactivation of specific thalamic nuclei or subregions of mPFC or the basal ganglia have elucidated the interdependent roles of these areas in adaptive goal-directed behavior. Electrophysiological recordings of mPFC neurons in rats performing delayed non-matching-to position (DNMTP) and other complex decision making tasks have revealed populations of neurons with activity related to actions and outcomes that underlie these behaviors. These include responses related to motor preparation, instrumental actions, movement, anticipation and delivery of action outcomes, memory delay, and spatial context. Comparison of results for mPFC, MD, and ventral pallidum (VP) suggest critical roles for mPFC in prospective processes that precede actions, MD for reinforcing task-relevant responses in mPFC, and VP for providing feedback about action outcomes. Synthesis of electrophysiological and behavioral results indicates that different networks connecting mPFC with thalamus and the basal ganglia are organized to support distinct functions that allow organisms to act efficiently to obtain intended outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert G. Mair
- Department of Psychology, The University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, United States
| | - Miranda J. Francoeur
- Neural Engineering and Translation Labs, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Erin M. Krell
- Department of Psychology, The University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, United States
| | - Brett M. Gibson
- Department of Psychology, The University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, United States
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14
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Takeuchi T, Tamura M, Tse D, Kajii Y, Fernández G, Morris RGM. Brain region networks for the assimilation of new associative memory into a schema. Mol Brain 2022; 15:24. [PMID: 35331310 PMCID: PMC8943948 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-022-00908-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Alterations in long-range functional connectivity between distinct brain regions are thought to contribute to the encoding of memory. However, little is known about how the activation of an existing network of neocortical and hippocampal regions might support the assimilation of relevant new information into the preexisting knowledge structure or 'schema'. Using functional mapping for expression of plasticity-related immediate early gene products, we sought to identify the long-range functional network of paired-associate memory, and the encoding and assimilation of relevant new paired-associates. Correlational and clustering analyses for expression of immediate early gene products revealed that midline neocortical-hippocampal connectivity is strongly associated with successful memory encoding of new paired-associates against the backdrop of the schema, compared to both (1) unsuccessful memory encoding of new paired-associates that are not relevant to the schema, and (2) the mere retrieval of the previously learned schema. These findings suggest that the certain midline neocortical and hippocampal networks support the assimilation of newly encoded associative memories into a relevant schema.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomonori Takeuchi
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, Edinburgh Neuroscience, University of Edinburgh, 1 George Square, Edinburgh, EH8 9JZ, UK. .,Danish Research Institute of Translational Neuroscience, DANDRITE, Nordic-EMBL Partnership for Molecular Medicine, Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Hoegh-Guldbergsgade 10, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark. .,Center for Proteins in Memory, PROMEMO, Danish National Research Foundation, Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Hoegh-Guldbergsgade 10, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | - Makoto Tamura
- Neuroscience Research Unit, Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma Corporation, Kanagawa, 227-0033, Japan.,NeuroDiscovery Lab, Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma Holdings America, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Dorothy Tse
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, Edinburgh Neuroscience, University of Edinburgh, 1 George Square, Edinburgh, EH8 9JZ, UK.,Department of Psychology, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, L39 4QP, UK
| | - Yasushi Kajii
- Neuroscience Research Unit, Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma Corporation, Kanagawa, 227-0033, Japan.,T-CiRA Discovery, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, 251-8555, Japan
| | - Guillén Fernández
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, 6500 HB, The Netherlands
| | - Richard G M Morris
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, Edinburgh Neuroscience, University of Edinburgh, 1 George Square, Edinburgh, EH8 9JZ, UK.
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15
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Chan A, Northoff G, Karasik R, Ouyang J, Williams K. Flights and Perchings of the BrainMind: A Temporospatial Approach to Psychotherapy. Front Psychol 2022; 13:828035. [PMID: 35444594 PMCID: PMC9014955 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.828035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This article introduces a process-oriented approach for improving present moment conceptualization in psychotherapy that is in alignment with neuroscience: the Temporospatial movements of mind (TSMM) model. We elaborate on seven temporal movements that describe the moment-to-moment morphogenesis of emotional feelings and thoughts from inception to maturity. Temporal refers to the passage of time through which feelings and thoughts develop, and electromagnetic activity, that among other responsibilities, bind information across time. Spatial dynamics extend from an undifferentiated to three dimensional experiences of emotional and cognitive processes. Neurophysiologically, spatial refers to structures within the brain and their varying interactions with one another. This article culminates in the development of an atheoretical temporospatial grid that may help clinicians conceptualize where patients are in their cognitive and emotional development to further guide technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aldrich Chan
- Graduate School of Education and Psychology, Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA, United States
- Center for Neuropsychology and Consciousness, Miami, FL, United States
- *Correspondence: Aldrich Chan,
| | - Georg Northoff
- Faculty of Medicine, Centre for Neural Dynamics, The Royal’s Institute of Mental Health Research, Brain and Mind Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
- Mental Health Centre, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- Centre for Cognition and Brain Disorders, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ryan Karasik
- Graduate School of Education and Psychology, Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA, United States
- Center for Neuropsychology and Consciousness, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Jason Ouyang
- Graduate School of Education and Psychology, Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA, United States
- Center for Neuropsychology and Consciousness, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Kathryn Williams
- Graduate School of Education and Psychology, Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA, United States
- Center for Neuropsychology and Consciousness, Miami, FL, United States
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16
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Kumar MG, Tan C, Libedinsky C, Yen SC, Tan AYY. A Nonlinear Hidden Layer Enables Actor-Critic Agents to Learn Multiple Paired Association Navigation. Cereb Cortex 2022; 32:3917-3936. [PMID: 35034127 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhab456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Revised: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Navigation to multiple cued reward locations has been increasingly used to study rodent learning. Though deep reinforcement learning agents have been shown to be able to learn the task, they are not biologically plausible. Biologically plausible classic actor-critic agents have been shown to learn to navigate to single reward locations, but which biologically plausible agents are able to learn multiple cue-reward location tasks has remained unclear. In this computational study, we show versions of classic agents that learn to navigate to a single reward location, and adapt to reward location displacement, but are not able to learn multiple paired association navigation. The limitation is overcome by an agent in which place cell and cue information are first processed by a feedforward nonlinear hidden layer with synapses to the actor and critic subject to temporal difference error-modulated plasticity. Faster learning is obtained when the feedforward layer is replaced by a recurrent reservoir network.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ganesh Kumar
- Integrative Sciences and Engineering Programme, NUS Graduate School, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119077, Singapore
- The N.1 Institute for Health, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117456, Singapore
- Innovation and Design Programme, Faculty of Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117579, Singapore
| | - Cheston Tan
- Institute for Infocomm Research, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, Singapore 138632, Singapore
| | - Camilo Libedinsky
- Integrative Sciences and Engineering Programme, NUS Graduate School, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119077, Singapore
- The N.1 Institute for Health, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117456, Singapore
- Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117570, Singapore
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, Singapore 138673, Singapore
| | - Shih-Cheng Yen
- Integrative Sciences and Engineering Programme, NUS Graduate School, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119077, Singapore
- The N.1 Institute for Health, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117456, Singapore
- Innovation and Design Programme, Faculty of Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117579, Singapore
| | - Andrew Y Y Tan
- Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117593, Singapore
- Healthy Longevity Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119228, Singapore
- Cardiovascular Disease Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119228, Singapore
- Neurobiology Programme, Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119077, Singapore
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17
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The HexMaze: A Previous Knowledge Task on Map Learning for Mice. eNeuro 2021; 8:ENEURO.0554-20.2021. [PMID: 34135006 PMCID: PMC8362685 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0554-20.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
New information is rarely learned in isolation; instead, most of what we experience can be incorporated into or uses previous knowledge networks in some form. Previous knowledge in form of a cognitive map can facilitate knowledge acquisition and will influence how we learn new spatial information. Here, we developed a new spatial navigation task where food locations are learned in a large, gangway maze to test how mice learn a large spatial map over a longer time period—the HexMaze. Analyzing performance across sessions as well as on specific trials, we can show simple memory effects as well as multiple effects of previous knowledge of the map accelerating both online learning and performance increases over offline periods when incorporating new information. We could identify the following three main phases: (1) learning the initial goal location; (2) faster learning after 2 weeks when learning a new goal location; and then (3) the ability to express one-session learning, leading to long-term memory effect after 12 weeks. Importantly, we are the first to show that buildup of a spatial map is dependent on how much time passes, not how often the animal is trained.
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18
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Wing EA, D'Angelo MC, Gilboa A, Ryan JD. The Role of the Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex and Basal Forebrain in Relational Memory and Inference. J Cogn Neurosci 2021; 33:1976-1989. [PMID: 34375419 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_01722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) is involved in diverse cognitive operations, from inhibitory control to processing of semantic schemas. When accompanied by damage to the basal forebrain, vmPFC lesions can also impair relational memory, the ability to form and recall relations among items. Impairments in establishing direct relations among items (e.g., A is related to B, B is related to C) can also hinder the transitive processing of indirect relationships (e.g., inferring that A and C are related through direct relations that each contain B). Past work has found that transitive inference improves when the direct relations are organized within an existing knowledge structure, or schema. This type of semantic support is most effective for individuals whose relational memory deficits are mild (e.g., healthy age-related decline) rather than pronounced (e.g., hippocampal amnesia, amnestic mild cognitive impairment). Given that vmPFC damage can produce both relational memory and schema processing deficits, such damage may pose a particular challenge in establishing the type of relational structure required for transitive inference, even when supported by preexisting knowledge. To examine this idea, we tested individuals with lesions to the mPFC on multiple conditions that varied in pre-experimental semantic support and explored the extent to which they could identify both previously studied (direct) and novel transitive (indirect) relations. Most of the mPFC cases showed marked transitive inference deficits and even showed impaired knowledge of preexisting, direct, semantic relations, consistent with disruptions to schema-related processes. However, one case with more dorsal mPFC damage showed preserved ability to identify direct relations and make novel inferences, particularly when pre-experimental knowledge could be used to support performance. These results suggest that damage to the mPFC and basal forebrain can impede establishment of ad hoc relational schemas upon which transitive inference is based, but that appealing to prior knowledge may still be useful for those neurological cases that have some degree of preserved relational memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik A Wing
- The Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest, Toronto, Canada
| | | | - Asaf Gilboa
- The Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest, Toronto, Canada.,University of Toronto, Canada
| | - Jennifer D Ryan
- The Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest, Toronto, Canada.,University of Toronto, Canada
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19
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Patai EZ, Spiers HJ. The Versatile Wayfinder: Prefrontal Contributions to Spatial Navigation. Trends Cogn Sci 2021; 25:520-533. [PMID: 33752958 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2021.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The prefrontal cortex (PFC) supports decision-making, goal tracking, and planning. Spatial navigation is a behavior that taxes these cognitive processes, yet the role of the PFC in models of navigation has been largely overlooked. In humans, activity in dorsolateral PFC (dlPFC) and ventrolateral PFC (vlPFC) during detours, reveal a role in inhibition and replanning. Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) is implicated in planning and spontaneous internally-generated changes of route. Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) integrates representations of the environment with the value of actions, providing a 'map' of possible decisions. In rodents, medial frontal areas interact with hippocampus during spatial decisions and switching between navigation strategies. In reviewing these advances, we provide a framework for how different prefrontal regions may contribute to different stages of navigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Zita Patai
- Centre for Neuroimaging Sciences, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience (IoPPN), King's College London, UK; Institute of Behavioural Neuroscience, Department of Experimental Psychology, Division of Psychology and Language sciences, University College London, UK.
| | - Hugo J Spiers
- Institute of Behavioural Neuroscience, Department of Experimental Psychology, Division of Psychology and Language sciences, University College London, UK.
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20
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Svrakic DM, Zorumski CF. Neuroscience of Object Relations in Health and Disorder: A Proposal for an Integrative Model. Front Psychol 2021; 12:583743. [PMID: 33790822 PMCID: PMC8005655 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.583743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in the neuroscience of episodic memory provide a framework to integrate object relations theory, a psychoanalytic model of mind development, with potential neural mechanisms. Object relations are primordial cognitive-affective units of the mind derived from survival- and safety-level experiences with caretakers during phase-sensitive periods of infancy and toddlerhood. Because these are learning experiences, their neural substrate likely involves memory, here affect-enhanced episodic memory. Inaugural object relations are encoded by the hippocampus-amygdala synaptic plasticity, and systems-consolidated by medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Self- and object-mental representations, extracted from these early experiences, are at first dichotomized by contradictory affects evoked by frustrating and rewarding interactions ("partial object relations"). Such affective dichotomization appears to be genetically hardwired the amygdala. Intrinsic propensity of mPFC to form schematic frameworks for episodic memories may pilot non-conscious integration of dichotomized mental representations in neonates and infants. With the emergence of working memory in toddlers, an activated self- and object-representation of a particular valence can be juxtaposed with its memorized opposites creating a balanced cognitive-affective frame (conscious "integration of object relations"). Specific events of object relations are forgotten but nevertheless profoundly influence the mental future of the individual, acting (i) as implicit schema-affect templates that regulate attentional priorities, relevance, and preferential assimilation of new information based on past experience, and (ii) as basic units of experience that are, under normal circumstances, integrated as attractors or "focal points" for interactive self-organization of functional brain networks that underlie the mind. A failure to achieve integrated object relations is predictive of poor adult emotional and social outcomes, including personality disorder. Cognitive, cellular-, and systems-neuroscience of episodic memory appear to support key postulates of object relations theory and help elucidate neural mechanisms of psychodynamic psychotherapy. Derived through the dual prism of psychoanalysis and neuroscience, the gained insights may offer new directions to enhance mental health and improve treatment of multiple forms of psychopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dragan M. Svrakic
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Charles F. Zorumski
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, Taylor Family Institute for Innovative Psychiatric Research, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
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21
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Ferreira-Fernandes E, Pinto-Correia B, Quintino C, Remondes M. A Gradient of Hippocampal Inputs to the Medial Mesocortex. Cell Rep 2020; 29:3266-3279.e3. [PMID: 31801088 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2019] [Revised: 09/04/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Memory-guided decisions depend on complex interactions between the hippocampus (HIPP) and medial mesocortical (MMC) regions, including the anterior cingulate (CG) and retrosplenial (RSC). The functional circuitry underlying these interactions is unclear. Using anatomy, electrophysiology, and optogenetics, we show that such circuitry is characterized by a functional-anatomical gradient. While the CG receives hippocampal excitatory projections originated in CA1 stratum pyramidale, the RSC additionally receives long-range inhibitory inputs from radiatum and lacunosum-moleculare. Such hippocampal projections establish bona fide synapses, with the RSC densely targeted on its superficial layers L1-L3 by a combination of inhibitory and excitatory synapses. We show that the MMC is targeted by dorsal-intermediate CA1 (diCA1) axons following a caudorostral gradient in which a dense, dual (excitatory/inhibitory), layer-specific projection is progressively converted in a sparse, excitatory, and diffuse projection. This gradient is reflected in higher oscillatory synchronicity between the HIPP and RSC in the awake-behaving animal, compatible with their known functional proximity and contrasting with that found in the CG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuel Ferreira-Fernandes
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon 1649-028, Portugal
| | - Bárbara Pinto-Correia
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon 1649-028, Portugal
| | - Carolina Quintino
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon 1649-028, Portugal
| | - Miguel Remondes
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon 1649-028, Portugal.
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22
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Bein O, Reggev N, Maril A. Prior knowledge promotes hippocampal separation but cortical assimilation in the left inferior frontal gyrus. Nat Commun 2020; 11:4590. [PMID: 32929067 PMCID: PMC7490707 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-18364-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
An adaptive memory system rarely learns information tabula rasa, but rather builds on prior knowledge to facilitate learning. How prior knowledge influences the neural representation of novel associations remains unknown. Here, participants associated pairs of faces in two conditions: a famous, highly familiar face with a novel face or two novel faces while undergoing fMRI. We examine multivoxel activity patterns corresponding to individual faces before and after learning. The activity patterns representing members of famous-novel pairs becomes separated in the hippocampus, that is, more distinct from one another through learning, in striking contrast to paired novel faces that become similar. In the left inferior frontal gyrus, however, prior knowledge leads to integration, and in a specific direction: the representation of the novel face becomes similar to that of the famous face after learning, suggesting assimilation of new into old memories. We propose that hippocampal separation might resolve interference between existing and newly learned information, allowing cortical assimilation. Thus, associative learning with versus without prior knowledge relies on radically different computations. Prior knowledge strongly impacts new learning, but its influence on the neural representation of novel information is unknown. Here, the authors show multiple neural codes for learning: prior knowledge leads to integrated cortical representations, while promoting hippocampal separation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oded Bein
- Department of Psychology, New York University, 6 Washington Pl, New York, NY, 10003, USA
| | - Niv Reggev
- Psychology Department, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, 1 Shderot Ben Gurion, Be'er Sheva, 8410501, Israel
| | - Anat Maril
- Department of Psychology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Mount Scopus, Jerusalem, 91905, Israel. .,Department of Cognitive Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Mount Scopus, Jerusalem, 91905, Israel.
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23
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Functional connectivity between memory and reward centers across task and rest track memory sensitivity to reward. COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2020; 19:503-522. [PMID: 30805850 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-019-00700-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
External motivation, such as a promise of future monetary reward for remembering an event, can affect which events are remembered. Reward-based memory modulation is thought to result from encoding and post-encoding interactions between dopaminergic midbrain, signaling reward, and hippocampus and parahippocampal cortex, supporting episodic memory. We asked whether hippocampal and parahippocampal interactions with other reward-related regions are related to reward modulation of memory and whether such relationships are stable over time. Individuals' memory sensitivity to reward was measured using a monetary incentive encoding task in which a cue indicated potential monetary reward (penny, dime, or dollar) for remembering an upcoming object pair. Functional connectivity between memory and reward regions was measured before, during, and following the task. Reward-related regions of interest were generated using a meta-analysis of existing studies on reward and included ventral striatum, medial and orbital prefrontal cortices and anterior cingulate cortex, in addition to midbrain. The results showed that connectivity between memory and reward regions tracked individual differences in reward modulation of memory, irrespective of when connectivity was measured. Connectivity patterns of anterior cingulate, orbitofrontal cortex, and ventral striatum covaried together and tracked behavior most strongly. These findings implicate a broader set of reward regions in reward modulation of memory than considered previously and provide new evidence that stable connectivity patterns between memory and reward centers relate to individual differences in how reward impacts memory.
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24
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Gradual learning and inflexible strategy use in amnesia: Evidence from case H.C. Neuropsychologia 2020; 137:107280. [PMID: 31812608 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2019.107280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Revised: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The value of case studies in informing our understanding of dissociations and interactions in memory was recognized early on by Endel Tulving, whose comprehensive work with the amnesic case K.C. helped to confirm distinctions between episodic and semantic memory. Following in this tradition, we examined memory and the use of cognitive strategies in the developmental amnesic case H.C., a young woman with structural abnormalities in the extended hippocampal system (Rosenbaum et al., 2014). H.C. was tested on two tasks, transitivity and transverse patterning, that each required learning the relations among items, and for the former, also examined the ability to make inferences across sets of relations. H.C. was tested across multiple sessions and demonstrated two seemingly contradictory patterns of performance: evidence of gradual learning, yet an inability to flexibly switch to a cognitive strategy that may otherwise benefit performance. Specifically, on the transitivity task, H.C. showed gradual learning of novel relations that led to successful inferential performance. On transverse patterning, H.C. showed some gradual learning of the relations among the objects across sessions, and expressed knowledge that the task followed 'rock-paper-scissors' rules. However, H.C. did not benefit from a unitization strategy, which had shown previous success with other amnesic cases (D'Angelo et al., 2015; Ryan, Moses, Barense, & Rosenbaum, 2013). H.C.'s over-reliance on 'rock-paper-scissors' rules, even in the face of alternate strategies, is suggestive of an inability to enact cognitive flexibility. Poor performance thus may have resulted from interference from the experimentally presented strategy on her self-imposed strategy. The present findings echo work reported by Tulving in case K.C. (Tulving, Hayman, & Macdonald, 1991). Whereas neurologically intact individuals may rely on the functions of the hippocampal system to rapidly learn new information and resolve interference, some individuals with hippocampal amnesia may learn information gradually, but such learning is particularly prone to interference, resulting in an inability to flexibly adapt to changes in the learning conditions in order to optimize performance.
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25
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Takehara-Nishiuchi K. Prefrontal-hippocampal interaction during the encoding of new memories. Brain Neurosci Adv 2020; 4:2398212820925580. [PMID: 32954000 PMCID: PMC7479858 DOI: 10.1177/2398212820925580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The hippocampus rapidly forms associations among ongoing events as they unfold and later instructs the gradual stabilisation of their memory traces in the neocortex. Although this two-stage model of memory consolidation has gained substantial empirical support, parallel evidence from rodent studies suggests that the neocortex, in particular the medial prefrontal cortex, might work in concert with the hippocampus during the encoding of new experiences. This opinion article first summarises findings from behavioural, electrophysiological, and molecular studies in rodents that uncovered immediate changes in synaptic connectivity and neural selectivity in the medial prefrontal cortex during and shortly after novel experiences. Based on these findings, I then propose a model positing that the medial prefrontal cortex and hippocampus might use different strategies to encode information during novel experiences, leading to the parallel formation of complementary memory traces in the two regions. The hippocampus captures moment-to-moment changes in incoming inputs with accurate spatial and temporal contexts, whereas the medial prefrontal cortex may sort the inputs based on their similarity and integrates them over time. These processes of pattern recognition and integration enable the medial prefrontal cortex to, in real time, capture the central content of novel experience and emit relevancy signal that helps to enhance the contrast between the relevant and incidental features of the experience. This hypothesis serves as a framework for future investigations on the potential top-down modulation that the medial prefrontal cortex may exert over the hippocampus to enable the selective, perhaps more intelligent encoding of new information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaori Takehara-Nishiuchi
- Department of Psychology,
University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Cell and Systems
Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Neuroscience Program, University
of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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26
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Alonso A, van der Meij J, Tse D, Genzel L. Naïve to expert: Considering the role of previous knowledge in memory. Brain Neurosci Adv 2020; 4:2398212820948686. [PMID: 32954007 PMCID: PMC7479862 DOI: 10.1177/2398212820948686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In humans, most of our new memories are in some way or another related to what we have already experienced. However, in memory research, especially in non-human animal research, subjects are often mostly naïve to the world. But we know that previous knowledge will change how memories are processed and which brain areas are critical at which time point. Each process from encoding, consolidation, to memory retrieval will be affected. Here, we summarise previous knowledge effects on the neurobiology of memory in both humans and non-human animals, with a special focus on schemas - associative network structures. Furthermore, we propose a new theory on how there may be a continuous gradient from naïve to expert, which would modulate the importance and role of brain areas, such as the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandra Alonso
- Donders Centre for Brain,
Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jacqueline van der Meij
- Donders Centre for Brain,
Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Dorothy Tse
- Center for Discovery Brain
Sciences, Edinburgh Neuroscience, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh,
UK
| | - Lisa Genzel
- Donders Centre for Brain,
Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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27
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Ryan JD, Kacollja A, D’Angelo MC, Newsome RN, Gardner S, Rosenbaum RS. Existing semantic knowledge provides a schematic scaffold for inference in early cognitive decline, but not in amnestic MCI. Cogn Neuropsychol 2019; 37:75-96. [DOI: 10.1080/02643294.2019.1684886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer D. Ryan
- Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest, Toronto, Canada
- Department of Psychology, Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | | | | | | | - Sandra Gardner
- Kunin-Lunenfeld Centre for Applied Research & Evaluation, Baycrest, Toronto, Canada
- Biostatistics Division, Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - R. Shayna Rosenbaum
- Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest, Toronto, Canada
- Department of Psychology, Vision: Science to Applications (VISTA) Program, York University, Toronto, Canada
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28
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Guo D, Yang J. Interplay of the long axis of the hippocampus and ventromedial prefrontal cortex in schema-related memory retrieval. Hippocampus 2019; 30:263-277. [PMID: 31490611 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.23154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Revised: 08/05/2019] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
When new information is relevant to prior knowledge or schema, it can be learned and remembered better. Rodent studies have suggested that the hippocampus and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) are important for processing schema-related information. However, there are inconsistent findings from human studies on the involvement of the hippocampus and its interaction with the vmPFC in schema-related memory retrieval. To address these issues, we used a human analog of the rodent spatial schema task to compare brain activity during immediate retrieval of paired associations (PAs) in schema-consistent and schema-inconsistent conditions. The results showed that the anterior hippocampus was more involved in retrieving PAs in the schema-consistent condition than in the schema-inconsistent condition. Connectivity analyses showed that the anterior hippocampus had stronger coupling with the vmPFC when the participants retrieved newly learned PAs successfully in the schema-consistent (vs. schema-inconsistent) condition, whereas the coupling of the posterior hippocampus with the vmPFC showed the opposite. Taken together, the results shed light on how the long axis of the hippocampus and vmPFC interact to serve memory retrieval via different networks that differ by schema condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dingrong Guo
- School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Jiongjiong Yang
- School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
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29
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Hasan M, Kanna MS, Jun W, Ramkrishnan AS, Iqbal Z, Lee Y, Li Y. Schema-like learning and memory consolidation acting through myelination. FASEB J 2019; 33:11758-11775. [PMID: 31366238 PMCID: PMC6902718 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201900910r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Memory is a dynamic brain function that is continually processed after encoding. Although psychologic concepts of mental schema are now well established, they have rarely been considered in animal studies. We used a behavior paradigm of multiple flavor-place paired associates (PAs) and showed that memory schema facilitates fast acquisition of new PAs in a single trial. The hippocampus is necessary for the encoding of new PAs and for memory retrieval within a certain time window—24 h following new PA consolidation. Whereas the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) plays a critical role for dynamic PA learning and consolidation during training sessions, ACC is essential in schema representation and activation. New myelin generation is essential for learning. Neural activity in the cortical regions impacts myelination by regulating oligodendrocyte (OL) proliferation, differentiation, and myelin formation. Here, we show that newly formed OL progenitor cells and mature OLs are increased following repeated PA learning and that establishment of the memory schema is associated with enhanced myelin strength in the ACC region. Furthermore, to ensure that myelination is necessary for the acquisition of paired-associate learning, ACC lysolecithin-induced demyelination revealed impaired PA learning associated with decrease in ACC θ band power and reduced spike-field coherence and phase-locking in ACC.—Hasan, M., Kanna, M. S., Jun, W., Ramkrishnan, A. S., Iqbal, Z., Lee, Y., Li, Y. Schema-like learning and memory consolidation acting through myelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahadi Hasan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | | | - Wang Jun
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | | | - Zafar Iqbal
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Youngjin Lee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Ying Li
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
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30
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Pilarzyk K, Klett J, Pena EA, Porcher L, Smith AJ, Kelly MP. Loss of Function of Phosphodiesterase 11A4 Shows that Recent and Remote Long-Term Memories Can Be Uncoupled. Curr Biol 2019; 29:2307-2321.e5. [PMID: 31303492 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2018] [Revised: 03/06/2019] [Accepted: 06/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Systems consolidation is a process by which memories initially require the hippocampus for recent long-term memory (LTM) but then become increasingly independent of the hippocampus and more dependent on the cortex for remote LTM. Here, we study the role of phosphodiesterase 11A4 (PDE11A4) in systems consolidation. PDE11A4, which degrades cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), is preferentially expressed in neurons of CA1, the subiculum, and the adjacently connected amygdalohippocampal region. In male and female mice, deletion of PDE11A enhances remote LTM for social odor recognition and social transmission of food preference (STFP) despite eliminating or silencing recent LTM for those same social events. Measurement of a surrogate marker of neuronal activation (i.e., Arc mRNA) suggests the recent LTM deficits observed in Pde11 knockout mice correspond with decreased activation of ventral CA1 relative to wild-type littermates. In contrast, the enhanced remote LTM observed in Pde11a knockout mice corresponds with increased activation and altered functional connectivity of anterior cingulate cortex, frontal association cortex, parasubiculum, and the superficial layer of medial entorhinal cortex. The apparent increased neural activation observed in prefrontal cortex of Pde11a knockout mice during remote LTM retrieval may be related to an upregulation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunits NR1 and NR2A. Viral restoration of PDE11A4 to vCA1 alone is sufficient to rescue both the LTM phenotypes and upregulation of NR1 exhibited by Pde11a knockout mice. Together, our findings suggest remote LTM can be decoupled from recent LTM, which may have relevance for cognitive deficits associated with aging, temporal lobe epilepsy, or transient global amnesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katy Pilarzyk
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, 6439 Garners Ferry Road, Columbia, SC 29209, USA
| | - Jennifer Klett
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, 6439 Garners Ferry Road, Columbia, SC 29209, USA
| | - Edsel A Pena
- Department of Statistics, University of South Carolina, 1523 Green Street, Columbia, SC 29201, USA
| | - Latarsha Porcher
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, 6439 Garners Ferry Road, Columbia, SC 29209, USA
| | - Abigail J Smith
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, 6439 Garners Ferry Road, Columbia, SC 29209, USA
| | - Michy P Kelly
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, 6439 Garners Ferry Road, Columbia, SC 29209, USA.
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31
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Genzel L, Schut E, Schröder T, Eichler R, Khamassi M, Gomez A, Navarro Lobato I, Battaglia F. The object space task shows cumulative memory expression in both mice and rats. PLoS Biol 2019; 17:e3000322. [PMID: 31206519 PMCID: PMC6597117 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Revised: 06/27/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Declarative memory encompasses representations of specific events as well as knowledge extracted by accumulation over multiple episodes. To investigate how these different sorts of memories are created, we developed a new behavioral task in rodents. The task consists of 3 distinct conditions (stable, overlapping, and random). Rodents are exposed to multiple sample trials, in which they explore objects in specific spatial arrangements, with object identity changing from trial to trial. In the stable condition, the locations are constant during all sample trials even though the objects themselves change; in the test trial, 1 object’s location is changed. In the random condition, object locations are presented in the sample phase without a specific spatial pattern. In the overlapping condition, 1 location is shared (overlapping) between all trials, while the other location changes during sample trials. We show that in the overlapping condition, instead of only remembering the last sample trial, rodents form a cumulative memory of the sample trials. Here, we could show that both mice and rats can accumulate information across multiple trials and express a long-term abstracted memory. Memories are stored and retrieved in different ways, depending on the age of memory and the character of the information, but many tasks for rodent subjects cannot differentiate between them. A new training paradigm for rats and mice enables testing for abstracted memory representation while controlling for memory recency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Genzel
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
- RadboudUMC, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
- * E-mail:
| | - Evelien Schut
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
- RadboudUMC, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Tim Schröder
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Ronny Eichler
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
- RadboudUMC, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Mehdi Khamassi
- Institute of Intelligent Systems and Robotics, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Paris, France
| | - Angela Gomez
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Irene Navarro Lobato
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Francesco Battaglia
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
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32
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The up and down of sleep: From molecules to electrophysiology. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2019; 160:3-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2018.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Revised: 03/04/2018] [Accepted: 03/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Porter BS, Hillman KL, Bilkey DK. Anterior cingulate cortex encoding of effortful behavior. J Neurophysiol 2019; 121:701-714. [DOI: 10.1152/jn.00654.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
An animal’s ability to assess the value of their behaviors to minimize energy use while maximizing goal achievement is critical to its survival. The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) has been previously shown to play a critical role in this behavioral optimization process, especially when animals are faced with effortful behaviors. In the present study, we designed a novel task to investigate the role of the ACC in evaluating behaviors that varied in effort but all resulted in the same outcome. We recorded single unit activity from the ACC as rats ran back and forth in a shuttle box that could be tilted to different tilt angles (0, 15, and 25°) to manipulate effort. Overall, a majority of ACC neurons showed selective firing to specific effort conditions. During effort expenditure, ACC units showed a consistent firing rate bias toward the downhill route compared with the more difficult uphill route, regardless of the tilt angle of the apparatus. Once rats completed a run and received their fixed reward, ACC units also showed a clear firing rate preference for the single condition with the highest relative value (25° downhill). To assess effort preferences, we used a choice version of our task and confirmed that rats prefer downhill routes to uphill routes when given the choice. Overall, these results help to elucidate the functional role of the ACC in monitoring and evaluating effortful behaviors that may then bias decision-making toward behaviors with the highest utility. NEW & NOTEWORTHY We developed a novel effort paradigm to investigate how the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) responds to behaviors with varied degrees of physical effort and how changes in effort influence the ACC’s evaluation of behavioral outcomes. Our results provide evidence for a wider role of the ACC in its ability to motivate effortful behaviors and evaluate the outcome of multiple behaviors within an environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blake S. Porter
- Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
- Brain Health Research Centre, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Kristin L. Hillman
- Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
- Brain Health Research Centre, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - David K. Bilkey
- Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
- Brain Health Research Centre, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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Almeida-Filho DG, Queiroz CM, Ribeiro S. Memory corticalization triggered by REM sleep: mechanisms of cellular and systems consolidation. Cell Mol Life Sci 2018; 75:3715-3740. [PMID: 30054638 PMCID: PMC11105475 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-018-2886-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2018] [Revised: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 07/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Once viewed as a passive physiological state, sleep is a heterogeneous and complex sequence of brain states with essential effects on synaptic plasticity and neuronal functioning. Rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep has been shown to promote calcium-dependent plasticity in principal neurons of the cerebral cortex, both during memory consolidation in adults and during post-natal development. This article reviews the plasticity mechanisms triggered by REM sleep, with a focus on the emerging role of kinases and immediate-early genes for the progressive corticalization of hippocampus-dependent memories. The body of evidence suggests that memory corticalization triggered by REM sleep is a systemic phenomenon with cellular and molecular causes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel G Almeida-Filho
- Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, 59056-450, Brazil
| | - Claudio M Queiroz
- Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, 59056-450, Brazil
| | - Sidarta Ribeiro
- Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, 59056-450, Brazil.
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Finnie PSB, Gamache K, Protopoulos M, Sinclair E, Baker AG, Wang SH, Nader K. Cortico-hippocampal Schemas Enable NMDAR-Independent Fear Conditioning in Rats. Curr Biol 2018; 28:2900-2909.e5. [PMID: 30197087 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2018.07.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Revised: 07/08/2018] [Accepted: 07/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The neurobiology of memory formation has been studied primarily in experimentally naive animals, but the majority of learning unfolds on a background of prior experience. Considerable evidence now indicates that the brain processes initial and subsequent learning differently. In rodents, a first instance of contextual fear conditioning requires NMDA receptor (NMDAR) activation in the dorsal hippocampus, but subsequent conditioning to another context does not. This shift may result from a change in molecular plasticity mechanisms or in the information required to learn the second task. To clarify how related events are encoded, it is critical to identify which aspect of a first task engages NMDAR-independent learning and the brain regions that maintain this state. Here, we show in rats that the requirement for NMDARs in hippocampus depends neither on prior exposure to context nor footshock alone but rather on the procedural similarity between two conditioning tasks. Importantly, NMDAR-independent learning requires the memory of the first task to remain hippocampus dependent. Furthermore, disrupting memory maintenance in the anterior cingulate cortex after the first task also reinstates NMDAR dependency. These results reveal cortico-hippocampal interactions supporting experience-dependent learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter S B Finnie
- Psychology Department, McGill University, 1205 Avenue Drive Penfield, Montreal, QC H3A 1B1, Canada
| | - Karine Gamache
- Psychology Department, McGill University, 1205 Avenue Drive Penfield, Montreal, QC H3A 1B1, Canada
| | - Maria Protopoulos
- Psychology Department, McGill University, 1205 Avenue Drive Penfield, Montreal, QC H3A 1B1, Canada
| | - Elizabeth Sinclair
- Psychology Department, McGill University, 1205 Avenue Drive Penfield, Montreal, QC H3A 1B1, Canada
| | - Andrew G Baker
- Psychology Department, McGill University, 1205 Avenue Drive Penfield, Montreal, QC H3A 1B1, Canada
| | - Szu-Han Wang
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, 49 Little France Crescent, Chancellor's Building GU507c, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.
| | - Karim Nader
- Psychology Department, McGill University, 1205 Avenue Drive Penfield, Montreal, QC H3A 1B1, Canada.
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36
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Cognitive Neuroscience: Exciting Developments in Schematic Learning. Curr Biol 2018; 28:R1096-R1098. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2018.07.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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37
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Wang SH. Novelty enhances memory persistence and remediates propranolol-induced deficit via reconsolidation. Neuropharmacology 2018; 141:42-54. [PMID: 30125560 PMCID: PMC6178872 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2017] [Revised: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Memory reactivation has been shown to open a time window for memory modulation. The majority of the methodological or pharmacological approaches target disruption of reconsolidation to weaken aversive memories. However, methods to improve appetitive memory persistence through reconsolidation or to reverse drug-induced reconsolidation impairment are limited. To improve memory persistence, previous studies show that a novel event, introduced around the time of memory encoding, enables the persistence of an otherwise decayed memory. This is mainly through a memory consolidation process. The current study first investigated if a novel event introduced during memory reactivation improves memory persistence through reconsolidation. Using a rodent appetitive spatial paradigm, similar to the human everyday experience of recalling where an item is located, a novel event around memory reactivation facilitated the persistence of spatial memory. This facilitation did not occur when the novel event was omitted and the protein synthesis-dependent reconsolidation was not affected by zif268 anti-sense in the dorsal hippocampus. Furthermore, beta-adrenergic antagonists, propranolol, impaired reconsolidation of appetitive spatial memory and contextual fear conditioning. A novel event after memory reactivation could reverse this impairment due to propranolol. Together, this study provides methods and confirmation for improving memory persistence during memory reactivation and reconsolidation. A novel event can reverse memory impairment caused by interfering reconsolidation with a noradrenergic β-blocker. Immediate-early gene, zif268, is not required for protein synthesis-dependent reconsolidation of appetitive spatial memory. A novel event can reverse the memory impairment caused by blocking reconsolidation with the noradrenergic beta-blocker propranolol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Szu-Han Wang
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK.
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38
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39
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Mashhoori A, Hashemnia S, McNaughton BL, Euston DR, Gruber AJ. Rat anterior cingulate cortex recalls features of remote reward locations after disfavoured reinforcements. eLife 2018; 7:29793. [PMID: 29664400 PMCID: PMC5931797 DOI: 10.7554/elife.29793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2017] [Accepted: 04/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) encodes information supporting mnemonic and cognitive processes. We show here that a rat’s position can be decoded with high spatiotemporal resolution from ACC activity. ACC neurons encoded the current state of the animal and task, except for brief excursions that sometimes occurred at target feeders. During excursions, the decoded position became more similar to a remote target feeder than the rat’s physical position. Excursions recruited activation of neurons encoding choice and reward, and the likelihood of excursions at a feeder was inversely correlated with feeder preference. These data suggest that the excursion phenomenon was related to evaluating real or fictive choice outcomes, particularly after disfavoured reinforcements. We propose that the multiplexing of position with choice-related information forms a mental model isomorphic with the task space, which can be mentally navigated via excursions to recall multimodal information about the utility of remote locations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Mashhoori
- Canadian Centre for Behavioural Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
| | - Saeedeh Hashemnia
- Canadian Centre for Behavioural Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
| | - Bruce L McNaughton
- Canadian Centre for Behavioural Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
| | - David R Euston
- Canadian Centre for Behavioural Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
| | - Aaron J Gruber
- Canadian Centre for Behavioural Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
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40
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Oren N, Shapira-Lichter I, Lerner Y, Tarrasch R, Hendler T, Giladi N, Ash EL. Schema benefit vs. proactive interference: Contradicting behavioral outcomes and coexisting neural patterns. Neuroimage 2017; 158:271-281. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2017] [Revised: 06/08/2017] [Accepted: 07/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
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41
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Neurobiology of Schemas and Schema-Mediated Memory. Trends Cogn Sci 2017; 21:618-631. [PMID: 28551107 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2017.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 283] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2017] [Revised: 04/27/2017] [Accepted: 04/28/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Schemas are superordinate knowledge structures that reflect abstracted commonalities across multiple experiences, exerting powerful influences over how events are perceived, interpreted, and remembered. Activated schema templates modulate early perceptual processing, as they get populated with specific informational instances (schema instantiation). Instantiated schemas, in turn, can enhance or distort mnemonic processing from the outset (at encoding), impact offline memory transformation and accelerate neocortical integration. Recent studies demonstrate distinctive neurobiological processes underlying schema-related learning. Interactions between the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), hippocampus, angular gyrus (AG), and unimodal associative cortices support context-relevant schema instantiation and schema mnemonic effects. The vmPFC and hippocampus may compete (as suggested by some models) or synchronize (as suggested by others) to optimize schema-related learning depending on the specific operationalization of schema memory. This highlights the need for more precise definitions of memory schemas.
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42
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Morrissey MD, Insel N, Takehara-Nishiuchi K. Generalizable knowledge outweighs incidental details in prefrontal ensemble code over time. eLife 2017; 6. [PMID: 28195037 PMCID: PMC5308892 DOI: 10.7554/elife.22177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2016] [Accepted: 01/17/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Memories for recent experiences are rich in incidental detail, but with time the brain is thought to extract latent rules and structures common across past experiences. We show that over weeks following the acquisition of two distinct associative memories, neuron firing in the rat prelimbic prefrontal cortex (mPFC) became less selective for perceptual features unique to each association and, with an apparently different time-course, became more selective for common relational features. We further found that during exposure to a novel experimental context, memory expression and neuron selectivity for relational features immediately generalized to the new situation. These neural patterns offer a window into the network-level processes by which the mPFC develops a knowledge structure of the world that can be adaptively applied to new experiences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark D Morrissey
- Department of Psychology, University or Toronto, Toronto, Canada.,Collaborative Program in Neuroscience, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Nathan Insel
- Department of Psychology, University or Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Kaori Takehara-Nishiuchi
- Department of Psychology, University or Toronto, Toronto, Canada.,Collaborative Program in Neuroscience, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.,Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
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43
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Anderson MC, Bunce JG, Barbas H. Prefrontal-hippocampal pathways underlying inhibitory control over memory. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2016; 134 Pt A:145-161. [PMID: 26642918 PMCID: PMC5106245 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2015.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2015] [Revised: 11/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
A key function of the prefrontal cortex is to support inhibitory control over behavior. It is widely believed that this function extends to stopping cognitive processes as well. Consistent with this, mounting evidence establishes the role of the right lateral prefrontal cortex in a clear case of cognitive control: retrieval suppression. Retrieval suppression refers to the ability to intentionally stop the retrieval process that arises when a reminder to a memory appears. Functional imaging data indicate that retrieval suppression involves top-down modulation of hippocampal activity by the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, but the anatomical pathways supporting this inhibitory modulation remain unclear. Here we bridge this gap by integrating key findings about retrieval suppression observed through functional imaging with a detailed consideration of relevant anatomical pathways observed in non-human primates. Focusing selectively on the potential role of the anterior cingulate cortex, we develop two hypotheses about the pathways mediating interactions between lateral prefrontal cortex and the medial temporal lobes during suppression, and their cellular targets: the entorhinal gating hypothesis, and thalamo-hippocampal modulation via the nucleus reuniens. We hypothesize that whereas entorhinal gating is well situated to stop retrieval proactively, thalamo-hippocampal modulation may interrupt an ongoing act of retrieval reactively. Isolating the pathways that underlie retrieval suppression holds the potential to advance our understanding of a range of psychiatric disorders characterized by persistent intrusive thoughts. More broadly, an anatomical account of retrieval suppression would provide a key model system for understanding inhibitory control over cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael C Anderson
- MRC Cognition & Brain Sciences Unit, 15 Chaucer Road, Cambridge, England CB2 7EF, United Kingdom.
| | - Jamie G Bunce
- Neural Systems Laboratory, Boston University, 635 Commonwealth Ave., Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Helen Barbas
- Neural Systems Laboratory, Boston University, 635 Commonwealth Ave., Boston, MA 02215, USA
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44
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Abstract
The dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) has attracted great interest from neuroscientists because it is associated with so many important cognitive functions. Despite, or perhaps because of, its rich functional repertoire, we lack a single comprehensive view of its function. Most research has approached this puzzle from the top down, using aggregate measures such as neuroimaging. We provide a view from the bottom up, with a focus on single-unit responses and anatomy. We summarize the strengths and weaknesses of the three major approaches to characterizing the dACC: as a monitor, as a controller, and as an economic structure. We argue that neurons in the dACC are specialized for representing contexts, or task-state variables relevant for behavior, and strategies, or aspects of future plans. We propose that dACC neurons link contexts with strategies by integrating diverse task-relevant information to create a rich representation of task space and exert high-level and abstract control over decision and action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah R Heilbronner
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York 14642
| | - Benjamin Y Hayden
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences and Center for Visual Science, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York 14627;
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45
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Lee AG, Capanzana R, Brockhurst J, Cheng MY, Buckmaster CL, Absher D, Schatzberg AF, Lyons DM. Learning to cope with stress modulates anterior cingulate cortex stargazin expression in monkeys and mice. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2016; 131:95-100. [PMID: 27003116 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2016.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2015] [Revised: 03/16/2016] [Accepted: 03/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Intermittent mildly stressful situations provide opportunities to learn, practice, and improve coping with gains in subsequent emotion regulation. Here we investigate the effects of learning to cope with stress on anterior cingulate cortex gene expression in monkeys and mice. Anterior cingulate cortex is involved in learning, memory, cognitive control, and emotion regulation. Monkeys and mice were randomized to either stress coping or no-stress treatment conditions. Profiles of gene expression were acquired with HumanHT-12v4.0 Expression BeadChip arrays adapted for monkeys. Three genes identified in monkeys by arrays were then assessed in mice by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Expression of a key gene (PEMT) involved in acetylcholine biosynthesis was increased in monkeys by coping but this result was not verified in mice. Another gene (SPRY2) that encodes a negative regulator of neurotrophic factor signaling was decreased in monkeys by coping but this result was only partly verified in mice. The CACNG2 gene that encodes stargazin (also called TARP gamma-2) was increased by coping in monkeys as well as mice randomized to coping with or without subsequent behavioral tests of emotionality. As evidence of coping effects distinct from repeated stress exposures per se, increased stargazin expression induced by coping correlated with diminished emotionality in mice. Stargazin modulates glutamate receptor signaling and plays a role in synaptic plasticity. Molecular mechanisms of synaptic plasticity that mediate learning and memory in the context of coping with stress may provide novel targets for new treatments of disorders in human mental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex G Lee
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
| | - Roxanne Capanzana
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
| | | | | | | | - Devin Absher
- HudsonAlpha Institute for Biotechnology, Huntsville, AL
| | - Alan F Schatzberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
| | - David M Lyons
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
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46
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Westermann J, Lange T, Textor J, Born J. System Consolidation During Sleep – A Common Principle Underlying Psychological and Immunological Memory Formation. Trends Neurosci 2015; 38:585-597. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2015.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2015] [Revised: 06/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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47
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Ryan JD, D'Angelo MC, Kamino D, Ostreicher M, Moses SN, Rosenbaum RS. Relational learning and transitive expression in aging and amnesia. Hippocampus 2015; 26:170-84. [PMID: 26234960 PMCID: PMC5014178 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.22501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Aging has been associated with a decline in relational memory, which is critically supported by the hippocampus. By adapting the transitivity paradigm (Bunsey and Eichenbaum (1996) Nature 379:255‐257), which traditionally has been used in nonhuman animal research, this work examined the extent to which aging is accompanied by deficits in relational learning and flexible expression of relational information. Older adults' performance was additionally contrasted with that of amnesic case DA to understand the critical contributions of the medial temporal lobe, and specifically, the hippocampus, which endures structural and functional changes in healthy aging. Participants were required to select the correct choice item (B versus Y) based on the presented sample item (e.g., A). Pairwise relations must be learned (A‐>B, B‐>C, C‐>D) so that ultimately, the correct relations can be inferred when presented with a novel probe item (A‐>C?Z?). Participants completed four conditions of transitivity that varied in terms of the degree to which the stimuli and the relations among them were known pre‐experimentally. Younger adults, older adults, and DA performed similarly when the condition employed all pre‐experimentally known, semantic, relations. Older adults and DA were less accurate than younger adults when all to‐be‐learned relations were arbitrary. However, accuracy improved for older adults when they could use pre‐experimentally known pairwise relations to express understanding of arbitrary relations as indexed through inference judgments. DA could not learn arbitrary relations nor use existing knowledge to support novel inferences. These results suggest that while aging has often been associated with an emerging decline in hippocampal function, prior knowledge can be used to support novel inferences. However, in case DA, significant damage to the hippocampus likely impaired his ability to learn novel relations, while additional damage to ventromedial prefrontal and anterior temporal regions may have resulted in an inability to use prior knowledge to flexibly express indirect relational knowledge. © 2015 The Authors Hippocampus Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer D Ryan
- Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Psychology, The University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, The University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Daphne Kamino
- Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Sandra N Moses
- Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Diagnostic Imaging and Neurosciences and Mental Health, Hospital for Sick Children.,Department of Medical Imaging, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - R Shayna Rosenbaum
- Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Psychology, York University
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Walters BJ, Zovkic IB. Building up and knocking down: an emerging role for epigenetics and proteasomal degradation in systems consolidation. Neuroscience 2015; 300:39-52. [PMID: 25967264 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2015] [Revised: 04/18/2015] [Accepted: 05/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Memory formation is a protracted process in which recently acquired events are consolidated to produce stable and specific associations. Initially, newly acquired information undergoes cellular consolidation in the hippocampus, which transiently supports the storage of recently acquired memories. In contrast, remote, or "old" memories are maintained in the cortex and show almost complete independence from the hippocampus. Memories are transferred from the hippocampus to the cortex through a process termed systems consolidation. Emerging evidence suggests that recurrent activation, or "training" of the cortex by the hippocampus is vital to systems consolidation. This process involves prolonged waves of memory-related gene activity in the hippocampus and cortex long after the learning event has terminated. Indeed, molecular events occurring within hours and days of fear conditioning are essential for stabilizing and eventually transitioning the memory to the cortex. It is increasingly evident that molecular mechanisms that exhibit a capacity for prolonged activation may underlie systems consolidation. Processes that have the capacity to control protein abundance over long time scales, such as epigenetic modifications, are prime candidates for the molecular mechanism of systems consolidation. Indeed, recent work has established two types of epigenetic modifications as integral for systems consolidation. First, localized nucleosomal histone variant exchange and histone modifications are integral for early stages of systems consolidation, whereas DNA methylation appears to be utilized to form stable marks that support memory maintenance. Since systems consolidation also requires discrete and time-sensitive changes in protein abundance, additional mechanisms, such as protein degradation, need also be considered, although their role in systems consolidation has yet to be investigated. Here, we discuss the role of molecular mechanisms in systems consolidation and their implications for understanding how memories persist over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- B J Walters
- The Hospital for Sick Children, Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - I B Zovkic
- University of Toronto Mississauga, Department of Psychology, Mississauga, ON, Canada.
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Initial investigation of the effects of an experimentally learned schema on spatial associative memory in humans. J Neurosci 2015; 34:16662-70. [PMID: 25505319 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2365-14.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Networks of interconnected neocortical representations of prior knowledge, "schemas," facilitate memory for congruent information. This facilitation is thought to be mediated by augmented encoding and accelerated consolidation. However, it is less clear how schema affects retrieval. Rodent and human studies to date suggest that schema-related memories are differently retrieved. However, these studies differ substantially as most human studies implement pre-experimental world-knowledge as schemas and tested item or nonspatial associative memory, whereas animal studies have used intraexperimental schemas based on item-location associations within a complex spatial layout that, in humans, could engage more strategic retrieval processes. Here, we developed a paradigm conceptually linked to rodent studies to examine the effects of an experimentally learned spatial associative schema on learning and retrieval of new object-location associations and to investigate the neural mechanisms underlying schema-related retrieval. Extending previous findings, we show that retrieval of schema-defining associations is related to activity along anterior and posterior midline structures and angular gyrus. The existence of such spatial associative schema resulted in more accurate learning and retrieval of new, related associations, and increased time allocated to retrieve these associations. This retrieval was associated with right dorsolateral prefrontal and lateral parietal activity, as well as interactions between the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and medial and lateral parietal regions, and between the medial prefrontal cortex and posterior midline regions, supporting the hypothesis that retrieval of new, schema-related object-location associations in humans also involves augmented monitoring and systematic search processes.
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Schlichting ML, Preston AR. Memory integration: neural mechanisms and implications for behavior. Curr Opin Behav Sci 2015; 1:1-8. [PMID: 25750931 DOI: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 199] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Everyday behaviors require a high degree of flexibility, in which prior knowledge is applied to inform behavior in new situations. Such flexibility is thought to be supported in part by memory integration, a process whereby related memories become interconnected in the brain through recruitment of overlapping neuronal populations. Recent advances in cognitive and behavioral neuroscience highlight the importance of a hippocampal-medial prefrontal circuit in memory integration. Emerging evidence suggests that abstracted representations in medial prefrontal cortex guide reactivation of related memories during new encoding events, thus promoting hippocampal integration of related experiences. Moreover, recent work indicates that integrated memories are called upon during novel situations to facilitate a host of behaviors, from spatial navigation to imagination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret L Schlichting
- Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station A8000, Austin, TX 78712, United States ; Center for Learning and Memory, The University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station C7000, Austin, TX 78712, United States
| | - Alison R Preston
- Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station A8000, Austin, TX 78712, United States ; Center for Learning and Memory, The University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station C7000, Austin, TX 78712, United States ; Department of Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station C7000, Austin, TX 78712, United States
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