Luminescence decay and the absorption cross section of individual single-walled carbon nanotubes

Carbon Nanomaterial Fluorescent Probes and Their Biological Applications

Fluorescent carbon nanomaterials have broadly useful chemical and photophysical attributes that are conducive to applications in biology. In this review, we focus on materials whose photophysics allow for the use of these materials in biomedical and environmental applications, with emphasis on imaging, biosensing, and cargo delivery. The review focuses primarily on graphitic carbon nanomaterials including graphene and its derivatives, carbon nanotubes, as well as carbon dots and carbon nanohoops. Recent advances in and future prospects of these fields are discussed at depth, and where appropriate, references to reviews pertaining to older literature are provided.

Probing the ultrafast dynamics of excitons in single semiconducting carbon nanotubes

Excitonic states govern the optical spectra of low-dimensional semiconductor nanomaterials and their dynamics are key for a wide range of applications, such as in solar energy harvesting and lighting. Semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotubes emerged as particularly rich model systems for one-dimensional nanomaterials and as such have been investigated intensively in the past. The exciton decay dynamics in nanotubes has been studied mainly by transient absorption and time-resolved photoluminescence spectroscopy. Since different transitions are monitored with these two techniques, developing a comprehensive model to reconcile different data sets, however, turned out to be a challenge and remarkably, a uniform description seems to remain elusive. In this work, we investigate the exciton decay dynamics in single carbon nanotubes using transient interferometric scattering and time-resolved photoluminescence microscopy with few-exciton detection sensitivity and formulate a unified microscopic model by combining unimolecular exciton decay and ultrafast exciton-exciton annihilation on a time-scale down to 200 fs.

Excitonic states govern the optical response of low-dimensional nanomaterials and are key for a wide range of applications. Here, the authors investigate the exciton decay dynamics in single carbon nanotubes with few-exciton detection sensitivity.

Progress and perspectives in single-molecule optical spectroscopy

We review some of the progress of single-molecule optical experiments in the past 20 years and propose some perspectives for the coming years. We particularly focus on methodological advances in fluorescence, super-resolution, photothermal contrast, and interferometric scattering and briefly discuss a few of the applications. These advances have enabled the exploration of new emitters and quantum optics; the chemistry and biology of complex heterogeneous systems, nanoparticles, and plasmonics; and the detection and study of non-fluorescing and non-absorbing nano-objects. We conclude by proposing some ideas for future experiments. The field will move toward more and better signals of a broader variety of objects and toward a sharper view of the surprising complexity of the nanoscale world of single (bio-)molecules, nanoparticles, and their nano-environments.

Biosensing with Fluorescent Carbon Nanotubes

Biosensors are powerful tools for modern basic research and biomedical diagnostics. Their development requires substantial input from the chemical sciences. Sensors or probes with an optical readout, such as fluorescence, offer rapid, minimally invasive sensing of analytes with high spatial and temporal resolution. The near‐infrared (NIR) region is beneficial because of the reduced background and scattering of biological samples (tissue transparency window) in this range. In this context, single‐walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) have emerged as versatile NIR fluorescent building blocks for biosensors. Here, we provide an overview of advances in SWCNT‐based NIR fluorescent molecular sensors. We focus on chemical design strategies for diverse analytes and summarize insights into the photophysics and molecular recognition. Furthermore, different application areas are discussed—from chemical imaging of cellular systems and diagnostics to in vivo applications and perspectives for the future.

When Super-Resolution Localization Microscopy Meets Carbon Nanotubes

We recently assisted in a revolution in the realm of fluorescence microscopy triggered by the advent of super-resolution techniques that surpass the classic diffraction limit barrier. By providing optical images with nanometer resolution in the far field, super-resolution microscopy (SRM) is currently accelerating our understanding of the molecular organization of bio-specimens, bridging the gap between cellular observations and molecular structural knowledge, which was previously only accessible using electron microscopy. SRM mainly finds its roots in progress made in the control and manipulation of the optical properties of (single) fluorescent molecules. The flourishing development of novel fluorescent nanostructures has recently opened the possibility of associating super-resolution imaging strategies with nanomaterials’ design and applications. In this review article, we discuss some of the recent developments in the field of super-resolution imaging explicitly based on the use of nanomaterials. As an archetypal class of fluorescent nanomaterial, we mainly focus on single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), which are photoluminescent emitters at near-infrared (NIR) wavelengths bearing great interest for biological imaging and for information optical transmission. Whether for fundamental applications in nanomaterial science or in biology, we show how super-resolution techniques can be applied to create nanoscale images “in”, “of” and “with” SWCNTs.

Bright NIR-II Photoluminescence in Rod-Shaped Icosahedral Gold Nanoclusters

Fluorophores with high quantum yields, extended maximum emission wavelengths, and long photoluminescence (PL) lifetimes are still lacking for sensing and imaging applications in the second near-infrared window (NIR-II). In this work, a series of rod-shaped icosahedral nanoclusters with bright NIR-II PL, quantum yields up to ≈8%, and a peak emission wavelength of 1520 nm are reported. It is found that the bright NIR-II emission arises from a previously ignored state with near-zero oscillator strength in the ground-state geometry and the central Au atom in the nanoclusters suppresses the non-radiative transitions and enhances the overall PL efficiency. In addition, a framework is developed to analyze and relate the underlying transitions for the absorptions and the NIR-II emissions in the Au nanoclusters based on the experimentally defined absorption coefficient. Overall, this work not only shows good performance of the rod-shaped icosahedral series of Au nanoclusters as NIR-II fluorophores, but also unravels the fundamental electronic transitions and atomic-level structure-property relations for the enhancement of the NIR-II PL in gold nanoclusters. The framework developed here also provides a simple method to analyze the underlying electronic transitions in metal nanoclusters.

Photoluminescence Dynamics Defined by Exciton Trapping Potential of Coupled Defect States in DNA-Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes

Chemical reactions between semiconducting single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) achieve spatially patterned covalent functionalization sites and create coupled fluorescent quantum defects on the nanotube surface, tailoring SWCNT photophysics for applications such as single-photon emitters in quantum information technologies. The evaluation of relaxation dynamics of photoluminescence (PL) from those coupled quantum defects is essential for understanding the nanotube electronic structure and beneficial to the design of quantum light emitters. Here, we measured the PL decay for ssDNA-functionalized SWCNTs as a function of the guanine content of the ssDNA oligo that dictates the red-shifting of their PL emission peaks relative to the band-edge exciton. We then correlate the observed dependence of PL decay dynamics on energy red-shifts to the exciton potential energy landscape, which is modeled using first-principles approaches based upon the morphology of ssDNA-altered SWCNTs obtained by atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging. Our simulations illustrate that the multiple guanine defects introduced within a single ssDNA strand strongly interact to create a deep exciton trapping well, acting as a single hybrid trap. The emission decay from the distinctive trapping potential landscape is found to be biexponential for ssDNA-modified SWCNTs. We attributed the fast time component of the biexponential PL decay to the redistribution of exciton population among the lowest energy bright states and a manifold of dark states emerging from the coupling of multiple guanine defects. The long lifetime component in the biexponential decay, on the other hand, is attributed to the redistribution of exciton population among different exciton trapping sites that arise from the binding of multiple ssDNA strands along the nanotube axis. AFM measurements indicate that those trapping sites are separated on average by ∼8 nm along the nanotube axis.

Resonant scattering-enhanced photothermal microscopy

Photothermal (PT) microscopy is currently the most efficient approach for the detection and spectroscopy of individual non-fluorescent nano-objects based solely on their absorption. The nano-objects in current PT microscopy are usually non-resonant with the probe laser light, and the PT signal is mainly generated from the interactions of the incident probe light and the heating light-induced thermal lens around the imaged object. Inspired by the high sensitivity of the scattering field from the nano-objects near optical resonance to the variation in the local refractive index, we developed a novel strategy of resonant scattering-enhanced PT microscopy where the imaged nano-objects are near-resonant with the probe laser light. We have demonstrated this by using gold nanorods (NRs) with tunable longitudinal surface plasmon resonances. The PT signal of gold NR near-resonant with the probe light showed dramatic variation in the narrow resonance wavelength range, as small as 15 nm, and the maximal amplitude of the PT signal in this range can be enhanced up to 43 times as compared with the weak PT signal of gold NR non-resonant with the probe light. Theoretical analysis indicates that the obtained strong PT signal is mainly caused by the heat-induced variation in the polarizability of gold NR. Our novel work demonstrates the first resonant scattering-enhanced PT imaging of plasmonic nanoparticles, paving the way for the development of PT microscopy with ultra-high sensitivity toward the sensing, imaging, and spectroscopy of nanoscopic objects in complex environments.

Fluorescent sp3 Defect-Tailored Carbon Nanotubes Enable NIR-II Single Particle Imaging in Live Brain Slices at Ultra-Low Excitation Doses

Cellular and tissue imaging in the second near-infrared window (NIR-II, ~1000–1350 nm) is advantageous for in vivo studies because of low light extinction by biological constituents at these wavelengths. However, deep tissue imaging at the single molecule sensitivity has not been achieved in the NIR-II window due to lack of suitable bio-probes. Single-walled carbon nanotubes have emerged as promising near-infrared luminescent molecular bio-probes; yet, their inefficient photoluminescence (quantum yield ~1%) drives requirements for sizeable excitation doses (~1–10 kW/cm²) that are significantly blue-shifted from the NIR-II region (<850 nm) and may thus ultimately compromise live tissue. Here, we show that single nanotube imaging can be achieved in live brain tissue using ultralow excitation doses (~0.1 kW/cm²), an order of magnitude lower than those currently used. To accomplish this, we synthesized fluorescent sp³-defect tailored (6,5) carbon nanotubes which, when excited at their first order excitonic transition (~985 nm) fluoresce brightly at ~1160 nm. The biocompatibility of these functionalized nanotubes, which are wrapped by encapsulation agent (phospholipid-polyethylene glycol), is demonstrated using standard cytotoxicity assays. Single molecule photophysical studies of these biocompatible nanotubes allowed us to identify the optimal luminescence properties in the context of biological imaging.

Photothermal Imaging of Individual Nano-Objects with Large Scattering Cross Sections

Photothermal (PT) microscopy enables the efficient detection of absorbing nano-objects with high sensitivity and stability. The PT signal in the current PT microscopy usually comes from the interaction of the probe laser beam with the heating laser beam-induced thermal lens, and the contribution of the scattering field from the imaged nano-object is usually not taken into account. Here, in this paper, we systematically studied the influence of the scattering field from the imaged nanoparticles on the obtained PT signal by using Ag nanowires (NWs) on a glass substrate surrounded by glycerol as an example. Under the excitation of a heating laser beam at 532 nm wavelength, the rise of local temperature around the Ag NW results in the intensity variation of the interferometric scattering probe light at 730 nm wavelength which includes the scattering light from the Ag NW and the reflection light from the glass-glycerol interface. We found that the PT signal on the NW are positive and negative for the probe beam polarized parallel and perpendicular to the NW axis, respectively. Numerical simulations confirm that the heat-induced intensity variation of the pure scattering light from the NW and the thermal lens-induced intensity increase of the reflection light both contribute to the obtained PT signal. Our work provides the basic guidance for the analysis of PT signal from nano-objects with large scattering cross sections.

Chirality Pure Carbon Nanotubes: Growth, Sorting, and Characterization

Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) have been attracting tremendous attention owing to their structure (chirality) dependent outstanding properties, which endow them with great potential in a wide range of applications. The preparation of chirality-pure SWCNTs is not only a great scientific challenge but also a crucial requirement for many high-end applications. As such, research activities in this area over the last two decades have been very extensive. In this review, we summarize recent achievements and accumulated knowledge thus far and discuss future developments and remaining challenges from three aspects: controlled growth, postsynthesis sorting, and characterization techniques. In the growth part, we focus on the mechanism of chirality-controlled growth and catalyst design. In the sorting part, we organize and analyze existing literature based on sorting targets rather than methods. Since chirality assignment and quantification is essential in the study of selective preparation, we also include in the last part a comprehensive description and discussion of characterization techniques for SWCNTs. It is our view that even though progress made in this area is impressive, more efforts are still needed to develop both methodologies for preparing ultrapure (e.g., >99.99%) SWCNTs in large quantity and nondestructive fast characterization techniques with high spatial resolution for various nanotube samples.

Probing Trions at Chemically Tailored Trapping Defects

Trions, charged excitons that are reminiscent of hydrogen and positronium ions, have been intensively studied for energy harvesting, light-emitting diodes, lasing, and quantum computing applications because of their inherent connection with electron spin and dark excitons. However, these quasi-particles are typically present as a minority species at room temperature making it difficult for quantitative experimental measurements. Here, we show that by chemically engineering the well depth of sp3 quantum defects through a series of alkyl functional groups covalently attached to semiconducting carbon nanotube hosts, trions can be efficiently generated and localized at the trapping chemical defects. The exciton-electron binding energy of the trapped trion approaches 119 meV, which more than doubles that of "free" trions in the same host material (54 meV) and other nanoscale systems (2-45 meV). Magnetoluminescence spectroscopy suggests the absence of dark states in the energetic vicinity of trapped trions. Unexpectedly, the trapped trions are approximately 7.3-fold brighter than the brightest previously reported and 16 times as bright as native nanotube excitons, with a photoluminescence lifetime that is more than 100 times larger than that of free trions. These intriguing observations are understood by an efficient conversion of dark excitons to bright trions at the defect sites. This work makes trions synthetically accessible and uncovers the rich photophysics of these tricarrier quasi-particles, which may find broad implications in bioimaging, chemical sensing, energy harvesting, and light emitting in the short-wave infrared.

Controlling the optical properties of carbon nanotubes with organic colour-centre quantum defects

Previously unwelcome, defects are emerging as a new frontier of research, providing a molecular focal point to study the coupling of electrons, excitons, phonons and spin in low-dimensional materials. This opportunity is particularly intriguing in semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotubes, in which covalently bonding organic functional groups to the sp 2 carbon lattice can produce tunable sp 3 quantum defects that fluoresce brightly in the shortwave IR, emitting pure single photons at room temperature. These novel physical properties have made such synthetic defects, or 'organic colour centres', exciting new systems for chemistry, physics, materials science, engineering and quantum technologies. This Review examines progress in this emerging field and presents a unified description of this new family of quantum emitters, as well as providing an outlook of the rapidly expanding research and applications of synthetic defects.

Ultrashort Carbon Nanotubes That Fluoresce Brightly in the Near-Infrared

The intrinsic near-infrared photoluminescence observed in long single-walled carbon nanotubes is known to be quenched in ultrashort nanotubes due to their tiny size as compared to the exciton diffusion length in these materials (>100 nm). Here, we show that intense photoluminescence can be created in ultrashort nanotubes (∼40 nm length) upon incorporation of exciton-trapping sp³ defect sites. Using super-resolution photoluminescence imaging at <25 nm resolution, we directly show the preferential localization of excitons at the nanotube ends, which separate by less than 40 nm and behave as independent emitters. This unexpected observation opens the possibility to synthesize fluorescent ultrashort nanotubes-a goal that has been long thought impossible-for bioimaging applications, where bright near-infrared photoluminescence and small size are highly desirable, and for quantum information science, where high quality and well-controlled near-infrared single photon emitters are needed.

Dynamics of charged excitons in electronically and morphologically homogeneous single-walled carbon nanotubes

The trion, a three-body charge-exciton bound state, offers unique opportunities to simultaneously manipulate charge, spin, and excitation in one-dimensional single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) at room temperature. Effective exploitation of trion quasi-particles requires fundamental insight into their creation and decay dynamics. Such knowledge, however, remains elusive for SWNT trion states, due to the electronic and morphological heterogeneity of commonly interrogated SWNT samples, and the fact that transient spectroscopic signals uniquely associated with the trion state have not been identified. Here, we prepare length-sorted SWNTs and precisely control charge-carrier-doping densities to determine trion dynamics using femtosecond pump-probe spectroscopy. Identification of the trion transient absorptive hallmark enables us to demonstrate that trions (i) derive from a precursor excitonic state, (ii) are produced via migration of excitons to stationary hole-polaron sites, and (iii) decay in a first-order manner. Importantly, under appropriate carrier-doping densities, exciton-to-trion conversion in SWNTs can approach 100% at ambient temperature. Our findings open up possibilities for exploiting trions in SWNT optoelectronics, ranging from photovoltaics and photodetectors to spintronics.

Photoluminescence Brightening of Isolated Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes

The addition of dithiothreitol (DTT) to a suspension consisting of either DNA- or sodium-dodecyl-sulfate (SDS)-wrapped single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) caused significant photoluminescence (PL) brightening from the SWCNTs, whereas PL quenching to different extents was observed for other surfactant-SWCNT suspensions. PL lifetime studies with high temporal resolution show that the addition of DTT mitigates nonradiative decay processes but also surprisingly increases the radiative decay rate for DNA- and SDS-SWCNTs. Completely opposite effects on the decay rates are found for the other surfactant-SWCNTs that show PL quenching. We propose that the PL brightening results from a surfactant reorganization upon DTT addition.

Linear and ultrafast nonlinear plasmonics of single nano-objects

Single-particle optical investigations have greatly improved our understanding of the fundamental properties of nano-objects, avoiding the spurious inhomogeneous effects that affect ensemble experiments. Correlation with high-resolution imaging techniques providing morphological information (e.g. electron microscopy) allows a quantitative interpretation of the optical measurements by means of analytical models and numerical simulations. In this topical review, we first briefly recall the principles underlying some of the most commonly used single-particle optical techniques: near-field, dark-field, spatial modulation and photothermal microscopies/spectroscopies. We then focus on the quantitative investigation of the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) of metallic nano-objects using linear and ultrafast optical techniques. While measured SPR positions and spectral areas are found in good agreement with predictions based on Maxwell's equations, SPR widths are strongly influenced by quantum confinement (or, from a classical standpoint, surface-induced electron scattering) and, for small nano-objects, cannot be reproduced using the dielectric functions of bulk materials. Linear measurements on single nano-objects (silver nanospheres and gold nanorods) allow a quantification of the size and geometry dependences of these effects in confined metals. Addressing the ultrafast response of an individual nano-object is also a powerful tool to elucidate the physical mechanisms at the origin of their optical nonlinearities, and their electronic, vibrational and thermal relaxation processes. Experimental investigations of the dynamical response of gold nanorods are shown to be quantitatively modeled in terms of modifications of the metal dielectric function enhanced by plasmonic effects. Ultrafast spectroscopy can also be exploited to unveil hidden physical properties of more complex nanosystems. In this context, two-color femtosecond pump-probe experiments performed on individual bimetallic heterodimers are discussed in the last part of the review, demonstrating the existence of Fano interferences in the optical absorption of a gold nanoparticle under the influence of a nearby silver one.

Single Nanotube Spectral Imaging To Determine Molar Concentrations of Isolated Carbon Nanotube Species

Electronic and biological applications of carbon nanotubes can be highly dependent on the species (chirality) of nanotube, purity, and concentration. Existing bulk methods, such as absorbance spectroscopy, can quantify sp2 carbon based on spectral bands, but nanotube length distribution, defects, and carbonaceous impurities can complicate quantification of individual particles. We present a general method to relate the optical density of a photoluminescent nanotube sample to the number of individual nanotubes. By acquiring 3-dimensional images of nanotubes embedded in a gel matrix with a reducing environment, we quantified all emissive nanotubes in a volume. Via spectral imaging, we assessed structural impurities and precisely determined molar concentrations of the (8,6) and (9,4) nanotube species. We developed an approach to obtain the molarity of any structurally enriched semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotube preparation on a per-nanotube basis.

In situ Characterization of Nanoparticles Using Rayleigh Scattering

We report a theoretical analysis showing that Rayleigh scattering could be used to monitor the growth of nanoparticles under arc discharge conditions. We compute the Rayleigh scattering cross sections of the nanoparticles by combining light scattering theory for gas-particle mixtures with calculations of the dynamic electronic polarizability of the nanoparticles. We find that the resolution of the Rayleigh scattering probe is adequate to detect nanoparticles as small as C60 at the expected concentrations of synthesis conditions in the arc periphery. Larger asymmetric nanoparticles would yield brighter signals, making possible to follow the evolution of the growing nanoparticle population from the evolution of the scattered intensity. Observable spectral features include characteristic resonant behaviour, shape-dependent depolarization ratio, and mass-dependent line shape. Direct observation of nanoparticles in the early stages of growth with unobtrusive laser probes should give insight on the particle formation mechanisms and may lead to better-controlled synthesis protocols.

(n,m)-Specific Absorption Cross Sections of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes Measured by Variance Spectroscopy

A new method based on variance spectroscopy has enabled the determination of absolute absorption cross sections for the first electronic transition of 12 (n,m) structural species of semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs). Spectrally resolved measurements of fluorescence variance in dilute bulk samples provided particle number concentrations of specific SWCNT species. These values were converted to carbon concentrations and correlated with resonant components in the absorbance spectrum to deduce (n,m)-specific absorption cross sections (absorptivities) for nanotubes ranging in diameter from 0.69 to 1.03 nm. The measured cross sections per atom tend to vary inversely with nanotube diameter and are slightly greater for structures of mod 1 type than for mod 2. Directly measured and extrapolated values are now available to support quantitative analysis of SWCNT samples through absorption spectroscopy.

Photoluminescence Dynamics of Aryl sp(3) Defect States in Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes

Photoluminescent defect states introduced by sp(3) functionalization of semiconducting carbon nanotubes are rapidly emerging as important routes for boosting emission quantum yields and introducing new functionality. Knowledge of the relaxation dynamics of these states is required for understanding how functionalizing agents (molecular dopants) may be designed to access specific behaviors. We measure photoluminescence (PL) decay dynamics of sp(3) defect states introduced by aryl functionalization of the carbon nanotube surface. Results are given for five different nanotube chiralities, each doped with a range of aryl functionality. We find that the PL decays of these sp(3) defect states are biexponential, with both components relaxing on time scales of ∼100 ps. Exciton trapping at defects is found to increases PL lifetimes by a factor of 5-10, in comparison to those for the free exciton. A significant chirality dependence is observed in the decay times, ranging from 77 ps for (7,5) nanotubes to >600 ps for (5,4) structures. The strong correlation of time constants with emission energy indicates relaxation occurs via multiphonon decay processes, with close agreement to theoretical expectations. Variation of the aryl dopant further modulates decay times by 10-15%. The aryl defects also affect PL lifetimes of the free E11 exciton. Shortening of the E11 bright state lifetime as defect density increases provides further confirmation that defects act as exciton traps. A similar shortening of the E11 dark exciton lifetime is found as defect density increases, providing strong experimental evidence that dark excitons are also trapped at such defect sites.

Microcavity-Integrated Carbon Nanotube Photodetectors

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are considered to be highly promising nanomaterials for multiwavelength, room-temperature infrared detection applications. Here, we demonstrate a single-tube diode photodetector monolithically integrated with a Fabry-Pérot microcavity. A ∼6-fold enhanced optical absorption can be achieved, because of the confined effect of the designed optical mode. Furthermore, taking advantage of Van-Hove-singularity band structures in CNTs, we open the possibility of developing chirality-specific (n,m) CNT-film-based signal detectors. Utilizing a concept of the "resonance and off-resonance" cavity, we achieved cavity-integrated chirality-sorted CNT-film detectors working at zero bias and resonance-allowed mode, for specific target signal detection. The detectors exhibited a higher suppression ratio until a power density of 0.07 W cm(-2) and photocurrent of 5 pA, and the spectral full width at half-maximum is ∼33 nm at a signal wavelength of 1200 nm. Further, with multiple array detectors aiming at different target signals integrated on a chip, a multiwavelength signal detector system can be expected to have applications in the fields of monitoring, biosensing, color imaging, signal capture, and on-chip or space information transfers. The approach can also bring other nanomaterials into on-chip or information optoelectronics, regardless of the available doping polarity.

Chirality-Selective Photoluminescence Enhancement of ssDNA-Wrapped Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes Modified with Gold Nanoparticles

In this work, a convenient method to enhance the photoluminescence (PL) of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) in aqueous solutions is provided. Dispersing by single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) and modifying with gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), about tenfold PL enhancement of the SWNTs is observed. More importantly, the selective PL enhancement is achieved for some particular chiralities of interest over all other chiralities, by using certain specific ssDNA sequences that are reported to recognize these particular chiralities. By forming AuNP-DNA-SWNT nanohybrids, ssDNA serves as superior molecular spacers that on one hand protect SWNT from direct contacting with AuNP and causing PL quench, and on the other hand attract the AuNP in close proximity to the SWNT to enhance its PL. This PL enhancement method can be utilized for the PL analysis of SWNTs in aqueous solutions, for biomedical imaging, and may serve as a prescreening method for the recognition and separation of single chirality SWNTs by ssDNA.

Exciton-exciton annihilation and relaxation pathways in semiconducting carbon nanotubes

We present a thorough analysis of one- and two-color transient absorption measurements performed on single- and double-walled semiconducting carbon nanotubes. By combining the currently existing models describing exciton-exciton annihilation-the coherent and the diffusion-limited ones-we are able to simultaneously reproduce excitation kinetics following both E11 and E22 pump conditions. Our simulations revealed the fundamental photophysical behavior of one-dimensional coherent excitons and non-trivial excitation relaxation pathways. In particular, we found that after non-linear annihilation a doubly-excited exciton relaxes directly to its E11 state bypassing the intermediate E22 manifold, so that after excitation resonant with the E11 transition, the E22 state remains unpopulated. A quantitative explanation for the observed much faster excitation kinetics probed at E22 manifold, comparing to those probed at the E11 band, is also provided.

Exciton Lifetime Paradoxically Enhanced by Dissipation and Decoherence: Toward Efficient Energy Conversion of a Solar Cell

Energy dissipation and decoherence are at first glance harmful to acquiring the long exciton lifetime desired for efficient photovoltaics. In the presence of both optically forbidden (namely, dark) and allowed (bright) excitons, however, they can be instrumental, as suggested in photosynthesis. By simulating the quantum dynamics of exciton relaxations, we show that the optimized decoherence that imposes a quantum-to-classical crossover with the dissipation realizes a dramatically longer lifetime. In an example of a carbon nanotube, the exciton lifetime increases by nearly 2 orders of magnitude when the crossover triggers a stable high population in the dark excitons.

Room-temperature single-photon generation from solitary dopants of carbon nanotubes

On-demand single-photon sources capable of operating at room temperature and the telecom wavelength range of 1,300-1,500 nm hold the key to the realization of novel technologies that span from sub-diffraction imaging to quantum key distribution and photonic quantum information processing. Here, we show that incorporation of undoped (6,5) single-walled carbon nanotubes into a SiO2 matrix can lead to the creation of solitary oxygen dopant states capable of fluctuation-free, room-temperature single-photon emission in the 1,100-1,300 nm wavelength range. We investigated the effects of temperature on photoluminescence emission efficiencies, fluctuations and decay dynamics of the dopant states and determined the conditions most suitable for the observation of single-photon emission. This emission can in principle be extended to 1,500 nm by doping of smaller-bandgap single-walled carbon nanotubes. This easy tunability presents a distinct advantage over existing defect centre single-photon emitters (for example, diamond defect centres). Our SiO2-encapsulated sample also presents exciting opportunities to apply Si/SiO2-based micro/nano-device fabrication techniques in the development of electrically driven single-photon sources and integration of these sources into quantum photonic devices and networks.

Influences of Exciton Diffusion and Exciton-Exciton Annihilation on Photon Emission Statistics of Carbon Nanotubes

Pump-dependent photoluminescence imaging and second-order photon correlation studies have been performed on individual single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) at room temperature. These studies enable the extraction of both the exciton diffusion constant and the Auger recombination coefficient. A linear correlation between these parameters is attributed to the effect of environmental disorder in setting the exciton mean free path and capture-limited Auger recombination at this length scale. A suppression of photon antibunching is attributed to the creation of multiple spatially nonoverlapping excitons in SWCNTs, whose diffusion length is shorter than the laser spot size. We conclude that complete antibunching at room temperature requires an enhancement of the exciton-exciton annihilation rate that may become realizable in SWCNTs allowing for strong exciton localization.

TAT and HA2 facilitate cellular uptake of gold nanoparticles but do not lead to cytosolic localisation

The methods currently available to deliver functional labels and drugs to the cell cytosol are inefficient and this constitutes a major obstacle to cell biology (delivery of sensors and imaging probes) and therapy (drug access to the cell internal machinery). As cell membranes are impermeable to most molecular cargos, viral peptides have been used to bolster their internalisation through endocytosis and help their release to the cytosol by bursting the endosomal vesicles. However, conflicting results have been reported on the extent of the cytosolic delivery achieved. To evaluate their potential, we used gold nanoparticles as model cargos and systematically assessed how the functionalisation of their surface by either or both of the viral peptides TAT and HA2 influenced their intracellular delivery. We evaluated the number of gold nanoparticles present in cells after internalisation using photothermal microscopy and their subcellular localisation by electron microscopy. While their uptake increased when the TAT and/or HA2 viral peptides were present on their surface, we did not observe a significant cytosolic delivery of the gold nanoparticles.

Ultrafast terahertz probes of interacting dark excitons in chirality-specific semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotubes

Ultrafast terahertz spectroscopy accesses the dark excitonic ground state in resonantly excited (6,5) single-walled carbon nanotubes via internal, direct dipole-allowed transitions between the lowest-lying dark-bright pair state of ∼6  meV. An analytical model reproduces the response that enables the quantitative analysis of transient densities of dark excitons and e-h plasma, oscillator strength, transition energy renormalization, and dynamics. Nonequilibrium, yet stable, quasi-one-dimensional quantum states with dark excitonic correlations rapidly emerge even with increasing off-resonance photoexcitation and experience a unique crossover to complex phase-space filling of both dark and bright pair states, different from dense two- and three-dimensional excitons influenced by the thermalization, cooling, and ionization to free carriers.

Nonlinear photoluminescence spectroscopy of carbon nanotubes with localized exciton states

We report distinctive nonlinear behavior of photoluminescence (PL) intensities from localized exciton states embedded in single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) at room temperature. We found that PL from the local states exhibits strong nonlinear behavior with increasing continuous-wave excitation power density, whereas free exciton PL shows only weak sublinear behavior. The strong nonlinear behavior was observed regardless of the origin of the local states and found to be nearly independent of the local state density. These results indicate that the strong PL nonlinearity arises from a universal mechanism to SWNTs with sparse local states. The significant nonlinear PL is attributed to rapid ground-state depletion of the local states caused by an efficient accumulation of photogenerated free excitons into the sparse local states through one-dimensional diffusional migration of excitons along the nanotube axis; this mechanism is verified by Monte Carlo simulations of exciton diffusion dynamics.

Characterizing the chiral index of a single-walled carbon nanotube

The properties of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) mainly depend on their geometry. However, there are still formidable difficulties to determine the chirality of SWCNTs accurately. In this review, some efficient methods to characterize the chiral indices of SWCNTs are illuminated. These methods are divided into imaging techniques and spectroscopy techniques. With these methods, diameter, helix angle, and energy states can be measured. Generally speaking, imaging techniques have a higher accuracy and universality, but are time-consuming with regard to the sample preparation and characterization. The spectroscopy techniques are very simple and fast in operation, but these techniques can be applied only to the particular structure of the sample. Here, the principles and operations of each method are introduced, and a comprehensive understanding of each technique, including their advantages and disadvantages, is given. Advanced applications of some methods are also discussed. The aim of this review is to help readers to choose methods with the appropriate accuracy and time complexity and, furthermore, to put forward an idea to find new methods for chirality characterization.

Electronic structure and chemical nature of oxygen dopant states in carbon nanotubes

We performed low temperature photoluminescence (PL) studies on individual oxygen-doped single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and correlated our observations to electronic structure simulations. Our experiment reveals multiple sharp asymmetric emission peaks at energies 50-300 meV red-shifted from that of the E11 bright exciton peak. Our simulation suggests an association of these peaks with deep trap states tied to different specific chemical adducts. In addition, oxygen doping is also observed to split the E11 exciton into two or more states with an energy splitting <40 meV. We attribute these states to dark states that are brightened through defect-induced symmetry breaking. While the wave functions of these brightened states are delocalized, those of the deep-trap states are strongly localized and pinned to the dopants. These findings are consistent with our experimental observation of asymmetric broadening of the deep trap emission peaks, which can result from interaction between pinned excitons and one-dimensional phonons. Exciton pinning also increases the sensitivity of the deep traps to the local dielectric environment, leading to a large inhomogeneous broadening. Observations of multiple spectral features on single nanotubes indicate the possibility of different chemical adducts coexisting on a given nanotube.

High-resolution mapping of intracellular fluctuations using carbon nanotubes

Cells are active systems with molecular force generation that drives complex dynamics at the supramolecular scale. We present a quantitative study of molecular motions in cells over times from milliseconds to hours. Noninvasive tracking was accomplished by imaging highly stable near-infrared luminescence of single-walled carbon nanotubes targeted to kinesin-1 motor proteins in COS-7 cells. We observed a regime of active random "stirring" that constitutes an intermediate mode of transport, different from both thermal diffusion and directed motor activity. High-frequency motion was found to be thermally driven. At times greater than 100 milliseconds, nonequilibrium dynamics dominated. In addition to directed transport along microtubules, we observed strong random dynamics driven by myosins that result in enhanced nonspecific transport. We present a quantitative model connecting molecular mechanisms to mesoscopic fluctuations.

Photothermal microscopy: optical detection of small absorbers in scattering environments

Photothermal microscopy enables detection of nanometer-sized objects solely based on their absorption. This technique allows efficient observation of various nano-objects in scattering media notably gold nanoparticles in cells. The extreme sensitivity of the method and the stability of the signals open numerous applications in spectroscopy, analytical chemistry and bioimaging. This review briefly describes the principle and the main characteristics of photothermal microscopy, with its major advantages and limitations, and exposes the principal applications that have been carried out since its first implementation.

Supercontinuum spatial modulation spectroscopy: detection and noise limitations

Supercontinuum spatial modulation spectroscopy is a facile tool for conducting single molecule/particle extinction spectroscopy throughout the visible and near infrared (420-1100 nm). The technique's capabilities are benchmarked using individual Au nanoparticles (NPs) as a standard since they are well studied and display a prominent plasmon resonance in the visible. Extinction spectra of individual Au NPs with diameters (d) ranging from d ~ 8 to 40 nm are resolved with extinction cross sections (σ(ext)) of σ(ext) ~ 1 × 10(-13)-1 × 10(-11) cm(2). Corresponding signal-to-noise ratios range from ~30 to ~1400. The technique's limit of detection is determined to be 4.3 × 10(-14) cm(2) (4.3 nm(2)). To showcase supercontinuum spatial modulation spectroscopy's broader applicability, extinction spectra are acquired for other model systems, such as individual single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and CdSe nanowires. We show for the first time extinction spectra of individual (8,3) and (6,5) SWCNTs. For both chiralities, their E11 [(8,3) 1.30 eV (952 nm); (6,5) 1.26 eV (986 nm)] and E22 [(8,3) 1.86 eV (667 nm); (6,5) 2.19 eV (567 nm)] excitonic resonances are seen with corresponding cross sections of σ(ext) ~ 10(-13) cm(2) μm(-1).

Chirality dependence of the absorption cross section of carbon nanotubes

The variation of the optical absorption of carbon nanotubes with their geometry has been a long-standing question at the heart of both metrological and applicative issues, in particular because optical spectroscopy is one of the primary tools for the assessment of the chiral species abundance of samples. Here, we tackle the chirality dependence of the optical absorption with an original method involving ultraefficient energy transfer in porphyrin-nanotube compounds that allows uniform photoexcitation of all chiral species. We measure the absolute absorption cross section of a wide range of semiconducting nanotubes at their S22 transition and show that it varies by up to a factor of 2.2 with the chiral angle, with type I nanotubes showing a larger absorption. In contrast, the luminescence quantum yield remains almost constant.

Quantum efficiency and capture cross section of first and second excitonic transitions of single-walled carbon nanotubes measured through photoconductivity

Comparing photoconductivity measurements, using p-n diodes formed along individual single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNT), with modeling results, allows determination of the quantum efficiency, optical capture cross section, and oscillator strength of the first (E11) and second (E22) excitonic transitions of SWNTs. This is in the infrared region of the spectrum, where little experimental work on SWNT optical absorption has been reported to date. We estimate quantum efficiency (η) ~1-5% and provide a correlation of η, capture cross section, and oscillator strength for E11 and E22 with nanotube diameter. This study uses the spectral weight of the exciton resonances as the determining parameter in optical measurements.

Metrological Investigation of the (6,5) Carbon Nanotube Absorption Cross Section

Using single-nanotube absorption microscopy, we measured the absorption cross section of (6,5) carbon nanotubes at their second-order optical transition. We obtained a value of 3.2 × 10(-17) cm(2)/C atom with a precision of 15% and an accuracy below 20%. This constitutes the first metrological investigation of the absorption cross section of chirality-identified nanotubes. Correlative absorption-luminescence microscopies performed on long nanotubes reveal a direct manifestation of exciton diffusion in the nanotube.

Multiparticle Exciton Ionization in Shallow Doped Carbon Nanotubes

Shallow hole doping in small-diameter semiconducting carbon nanotubes with a valley degeneracy is predicted to result in the resonant ionization of excitons into free electron-hole pairs. This mechanism, which relies on the chirality of the electronic states, causes excitons to decay with high efficiencies where the rate scales as the square of the dopant density. Moreover, multiparticle exciton ionization can account for delocalized fluorescence quenching when a few holes per micrometer of tube length are present.

Disorder limited exciton transport in colloidal single-wall carbon nanotubes

We present measurements of S(1) exciton transport in (6,5) carbon nanotubes at room temperature in a colloidal environment. Exciton diffusion lengths associated with end quenching paired with photoluminescence lifetimes provide a direct basis for determining a median diffusion constant of approximately 7.5 cm(2)s(-1). Our experimental results are compared to model diffusion constants calculated using a realistic exciton dispersion accounting for a logarithmic correction due to the exchange self-energy and a nonequilibrium distribution between bright and dark excitons. The intrinsic diffusion constant associated with acoustic phonon scattering is too large to explain the observed diffusion length, and as such, we attribute the observed transport to disorder-limited diffusional transport associated with the dynamics of the colloidal interface. In this model an effective surface potential limits the exciton mean free path to the same size as that of the exciton wave function, defined by the strength of the electron-hole Coulomb interaction.