Single-shot femtosecond x-ray holography using extended references

Spectral splitting in phase mismatched harmonics

Spectral splitting of high harmonic radiation is observed when a gas target is irradiated with a high-energy laser pulse, having an extreme amount of frequency chirp. The phenomenon, which may be observed only by using a multi-TW laser system, originates from the temporal evolution of the phase-matching conditions. We illustrate how these conditions are mapped to the spectral domain, and present experimental evidence which is validated by our model.

Single-shot spatial coherence characterization of x-ray ultrafast sources

Spatial coherence is an impactful source parameter in many applications ranging from atomic and molecular physics to metrology or imaging. In lensless imaging, for example, it can strongly affect the image formation, especially when the source exhibits shot-to-shot variations. Single-shot characterization of the spatial coherence length of a source is thus crucial. However, current techniques require either parallel intensity measurements or the use of several masks. Based on the method proposed by González et al. [J. Opt. Soc. Am. A28, 1107 (2011)JOAOD60740-323210.1364/JOSAA.28.001107], we designed a specific arrangement of a two-dimensional non-redundant array of apertures, which allows, through its far field interference pattern, for a single-shot measurement of the spatial coherence, while being robust against beam-pointing instabilities. The strategic configuration of the pinholes allows us to disentangle the degree of spatial coherence from the intensity distribution, thus removing the need for parallel measurement of the beam intensity. An experimental validation is performed using a high-harmonic source. A statistical study in different regimes shows the robustness of the method.

Principles of Different X-ray Phase-Contrast Imaging: A Review

Numerous advances have been made in X-ray technology in recent years. X-ray imaging plays an important role in the nondestructive exploration of the internal structures of objects. However, the contrast of X-ray absorption images remains low, especially for materials with low atomic numbers, such as biological samples. X-ray phase-contrast images have an intrinsically higher contrast than absorption images. In this review, the principles, milestones, and recent progress of X-ray phase-contrast imaging methods are demonstrated. In addition, prospective applications are presented.

70 mJ nonlinear compression and scaling route for an Yb amplifier using large-core hollow fibers

In this Letter, we investigate the energy-scaling rules of hollow-core fiber (HCF)-based nonlinear pulse propagation and compression merged with high-energy Yb-laser technology, in a regime where the effects such as plasma disturbance, optical damages, and setup size become important limiting parameters. As a demonstration, 70 mJ 230 fs pulses from a high-energy Yb laser amplifier were compressed down to 40 mJ 25 fs by using a 2.8-m-long stretched HCF with a core diameter of 1 mm, resulting in a record peak power of 1.3 TW. This work presents a critical advance of a high-energy pulse (hundreds of mJ level) nonlinear interactions platform based on high energy sub-ps Yb technology with considerable applications, including driving intense THz, X-ray pulses, Wakefield acceleration, parametric wave mixing and ultraviolet generation, and tunable long-wavelength generation via enhanced Raman scattering.

Single-frame coherent diffraction imaging of extended objects using triangular aperture

We propose a method of single-frame coherent diffraction imaging using a triangular aperture, which can not only reconstruct the projection image of extended objects from a single-frame coherent diffraction pattern, but also improve the image of the wavefield of the probe. In this method, a plane-wave illuminates a triangular aperture. An object is placed immediately after the aperture or in the image plane of the aperture through a lens. A far-field coherent diffraction pattern is collected by a two-dimensional detector. The object image is reconstructed from the single-frame diffraction pattern using a phase retrieval algorithm without support constraints. We simulate feasible experimental setups in the hard X-ray regime and show that this method can be practical use for single-frame coherent diffraction imaging. The present method has the potential exploring dynamic phenomena in materials science and biology with high spatiotemporal resolution using synchrotron radiation/free-electron lasers.

High-harmonic generation wave front dependence on a driving infrared wave front

With high-harmonic generation (HHG), spatially and temporally coherent XUV to soft x-ray (100 nm to 10 nm) table-top sources can be realized by focusing a driving infrared (IR) laser on a gas target. For applications such as coherent diffraction imaging, holography, plasma diagnostics, or pump-probe experiments, it is desirable to have control over the wave front (WF) of the HHs to maximize the number of XUV photons on target or to tailor the WF. Here, we demonstrate control of the XUV WF by tailoring the driving IR WF with a deformable mirror. The WFs of both IR and XUV beams are monitored with WF sensors. We present a systematic study of the dependence of the aberrations of the HHs on the aberrations of the driving IR laser and explain the observations with propagation simulations. We show that we can control the astigmatism of the HHs by changing the astigmatism of the driving IR laser without compromising the HH generation efficiency with a WF quality from λ/8 to λ/13.3. This allows us to shape the XUV beam without changing any XUV optical element.

All semiconductor enhanced high-harmonic generation from a single nanostructured cone

The enhancement and control of non-linear phenomena at a nanometer scale has a wide range of applications in science and in industry. Among these phenomena, high-harmonic generation in solids is a recent focus of research to realize next generation petahertz optoelectronic devices or compact all solid state EUV sources. Here, we report on the realization of the first nanoscale high harmonic source. The strong field regime is reached by confining the electric field from a few nanojoules femtosecond laser in a single 3D semiconductor waveguide. We reveal a strong competition between enhancement of coherent harmonics and incoherent fluorescence favored by excitonic processes. However, far from the band edge, clear enhancement of the harmonic emission is reported with a robust sustainability offering a compact nanosource for applications. We illustrate the potential of our harmonic nano-device by performing a coherent diffractive imaging experiment. Ultra-compact UV/X-ray nanoprobes are foreseen to have other applications such as petahertz electronics, nano-tomography or nano-medicine.

High resolution XUV Fourier transform holography on a table top

Today, coherent imaging techniques provide the highest resolution in the extreme ultraviolet (XUV) and X-ray regions. Fourier transform holography (FTH) is particularly unique, providing robust and straightforward image reconstruction at the same time. Here, we combine two important advances: First, our experiment is based on a table-top light source which is compact, scalable and highly accessible. Second, we demonstrate the highest resolution ever achieved with FTH at any light source (34 nm) by utilizing a high photon flux source and cutting-edge nanofabrication technology. The performance, versatility and reliability of our approach allows imaging of complex wavelength-scale structures, including wave guiding effects within these structures, and resolving embedded nanoscale features, which are invisible for electron microscopes. Our work represents an important step towards real-world applications and a broad use of XUV imaging in many areas of science and technology. Even nanoscale studies of ultra-fast dynamics are within reach.

Diffractive shear interferometry for extreme ultraviolet high-resolution lensless imaging

We demonstrate a novel imaging approach and associated reconstruction algorithm for far-field coherent diffractive imaging, based on the measurement of a pair of laterally sheared diffraction patterns. The differential phase profile retrieved from such a measurement leads to improved reconstruction accuracy, increased robustness against noise, and faster convergence compared to traditional coherent diffractive imaging methods. We measure laterally sheared diffraction patterns using Fourier-transform spectroscopy with two phase-locked pulse pairs from a high-harmonic source. Using this approach, we demonstrate spectrally resolved imaging at extreme ultraviolet wavelengths between 28 and 35 nm.

Lensless Stokes holography with the Hanbury Brown-Twiss approach

The recording and reconstruction of the Stokes parameter is of paramount importance for the description of the vectorial interference of light. Polarization holography provides a complete vectorial wavefront, however, direct recording and reconstruction of the hologram is not possible in a situation where the object is located behind the random scattering layer. The Stokes holography plays an important role in such situations and makes use of the Fourier transform relation between the Stokes parameters (SPs) at the scattering plane and the generalized Stokes parameters (GSPs) of the random field. In this paper, we propose and experimentally demonstrate the Stokes holography with the Hanbury Brown-Twiss (HBT) interferometer. We also propose and implement a lensless Fourier configuration for the Stokes holography. This permits us to reconstruct the wavefront from the GSPs at any arbitrary distance from the scattering plane. The application of the proposed technique is experimentally demonstrated for the 3D imaging of two different objects lying behind the random scattering medium. Depth information of the 3D objects is obtained by digitally propagating the generalized Stokes parameters to a different longitudinal distance. The quality of the reconstruction is assessed by measuring the overall visibility, efficiency, and PSNR of the reconstruction parameters.

Three-dimensional single-cell imaging with X-ray waveguides in the holographic regime

X-ray tomography at the level of single biological cells is possible in a low-dose regime, based on full-field holographic recordings, with phase contrast originating from free-space wave propagation. Building upon recent progress in cellular imaging based on the illumination by quasi-point sources provided by X-ray waveguides, here this approach is extended in several ways. First, the phase-retrieval algorithms are extended by an optimized deterministic inversion, based on a multi-distance recording. Second, different advanced forms of iterative phase retrieval are used, operational for single-distance and multi-distance recordings. Results are compared for several different preparations of macrophage cells, for different staining and labelling. As a result, it is shown that phase retrieval is no longer a bottleneck for holographic imaging of cells, and how advanced schemes can be implemented to cope also with high noise and inconsistencies in the data.

Deterministic Bragg Coherent Diffraction Imaging

A deterministic variant of Bragg Coherent Diffraction Imaging is introduced in its kinematical approximation, for X-ray scattering from an imperfect crystal whose imperfections span no more than half of the volume of the crystal. This approach provides a unique analytical reconstruction of the object's structure factor and displacement fields from the 3D diffracted intensity distribution centred around any particular reciprocal lattice vector. The simple closed-form reconstruction algorithm, which requires only one multiplication and one Fourier transformation, is not restricted by assumptions of smallness of the displacement field. The algorithm performs well in simulations incorporating a variety of conditions, including both realistic levels of noise and departures from ideality in the reference (i.e. imperfection-free) part of the crystal.

Influence of detector noise in holographic imaging with limited photon flux

Lensless coherent diffractive imaging usually requires iterative phase-retrieval for recovering the missing phase information. Holographic techniques, such as Fourier-transform holography (FTH) or holography with extended references (HERALDO), directly provide this phase information and thus allow for a direct non-iterative reconstruction of the sample. In this paper, we analyze the effect of detector noise on the reconstruction for FTH and HERALDO with linear and rectangular references. We find that HERALDO is more sensitive to this type of noise than FTH, especially if rectangular references are employed. This excessive noise, caused by the necessary differentiation step(s) during reconstruction in case of HERALDO, additionally depends on the numerical implementation. When considering both shot-noise and detector noise, we find that FTH provides a better signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) than HERALDO if the available photon flux from the light source is low. In contrast, at high photon flux HERALDO provides better SNR and resolution than FTH. Our findings will help in designing optimum holographic imaging experiments particularly in the photon-flux-limited regime where most ultrafast experiments operate.

Impact of noise in holography with extended references in the low signal regime

Signal-to-noise ratio is a key factor in lensless imaging, particularly for low diffraction signal experiments in the single shot regime. We present our recent study of the noise impact on holography with extended references. Experimental data have been measured in single shot acquisition using an intense coherent soft X-ray high harmonic source. The impact of hardware and software noise under various detection conditions is discussed. A final comparison between single shot and multi-shot regimes is given.

Direct single-shot phase retrieval from the diffraction pattern of separated objects

The non-crystallographic phase problem arises in numerous scientific and technological fields. An important application is coherent diffractive imaging. Recent advances in X-ray free-electron lasers allow capturing of the diffraction pattern from a single nanoparticle before it disintegrates, in so-called 'diffraction before destruction' experiments. Presently, the phase is reconstructed by iterative algorithms, imposing a non-convex computational challenge, or by Fourier holography, requiring a well-characterized reference field. Here we present a convex scheme for single-shot phase retrieval for two (or more) sufficiently separated objects, demonstrated in two dimensions. In our approach, the objects serve as unknown references to one another, reducing the phase problem to a solvable set of linear equations. We establish our method numerically and experimentally in the optical domain and demonstrate a proof-of-principle single-shot coherent diffractive imaging using X-ray free-electron lasers pulses. Our scheme alleviates several limitations of current methods, offering a new pathway towards direct reconstruction of complex objects.

Direct inversion of digital 3D Fraunhofer holography maps

Differential Fourier holography (DFH) gives an exact mathematical solution of the inverse problem of diffraction in the Fraunhofer regime. After the first publication [Opt. Express15, 9954 (2007)], DFH was successfully applied in many experiments to obtain amplitude and phase information about two-dimensional images. In this paper, we demonstrate numerically the possibility to apply DFH also for investigation of unknown three-dimensional objects. The first simulation is made for a double-spiral structure plus a line as a reference object.

High dynamic range coherent imaging using compressed sensing

In both lensless Fourier transform holography (FTH) and coherent diffraction imaging (CDI), a beamstop is used to block strong intensities which exceed the limited dynamic range of the sensor, causing a loss in low-frequency information, making high quality reconstructions difficult or even impossible. In this paper, we show that an image can be recovered from high-frequencies alone, thereby overcoming the beamstop problem in both FTH and CDI. The only requirement is that the object is sparse in a known basis, a common property of most natural and manmade signals. The reconstruction method relies on compressed sensing (CS) techniques, which ensure signal recovery from incomplete measurements. Specifically, in FTH, we perform compressed sensing (CS) reconstruction of captured holograms and show that this method is applicable not only to standard FTH, but also multiple or extended reference FTH. For CDI, we propose a new phase retrieval procedure, which combines Fienup's hybrid input-output (HIO) method and CS. Both numerical simulations and proof-of-principle experiments are shown to demonstrate the effectiveness and robustness of the proposed CS-based reconstructions in dealing with missing data in both FTH and CDI.

Octave-spanning hyperspectral coherent diffractive imaging in the extreme ultraviolet range

Soft x-ray microscopy is a powerful imaging technique that provides sub-micron spatial resolution, as well as chemical specificity using core-level near-edge x-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS). Near the carbon K-edge (280-300 eV) biological samples exhibit high contrast, and the detailed spectrum contains information about the local chemical environment of the atoms. Most soft x-ray imaging takes place on dedicated beamlines at synchrotron facilities or at x-ray free electron laser facilities. Tabletop femtosecond laser systems are now able to produce coherent radiation at the carbon K-edge and beyond through the process of high harmonic generation (HHG). The broad bandwidth of HHG is seemingly a limitation to imaging, since x-ray optical elements such as Fresnel zone plates require monochromatic sources. Counter-intuitively, the broad bandwidth of HHG sources can be beneficial as it permits chemically-specific hyperspectral imaging. We apply two separate techniques - Fourier transform spectroscopy, and lensless holographic imaging - to obtain images of an object simultaneously at multiple wavelengths using an octave-spanning high harmonic source with photon energies up to 30 eV. We use an interferometric delay reference to correct for nanometer-scale fluctuations between the two HHG sources.

Fourier transform holography with high harmonic spectra for attosecond imaging applications

We demonstrate a method of using a Fourier holographic technique to utilize attosecond soft x-ray pulses to image nanometer-scale objects. A discrete frequency comb of laser-generated high-order harmonics, yielding a train of attosecond pulses, has been used to record spatially and spectrally resolved images. The individual wavelengths were also combined to form a single image, albeit with lower spatial resolution, demonstrating the applicability of the method to using isolated attosecond pulses with continuous bandwidths.

Extreme ultraviolet digital in-line holography using a tabletop source

Digital in-line holography (DIH) offers fast, lensless, and aberration-free imaging with diffraction-limited resolution and inherently combines phase- and amplitude-contrast imaging, as well as three-dimensional imaging. Extending this technique to shorter wavelengths allows increasing the achievable spatial and phase-contrast resolution, as well as accessing material parameters not accessible in the optical domain. In this paper, we report on DIH experiments conducted with a coherent tabletop ultrafast high harmonic source operated at 38 nm wavelength. Applying a twin-image-free reconstruction scheme optimized for highly absorbing samples, we were able to demonstrate the phase-contrast imaging of silicon nitride sheets of 15 nm thickness and the use of the strong absorption of extreme ultraviolet in matter for amplitude-contrast imaging of thin films with spatial resolution below 1 μm. High-resolution morphology determination in combination with phase-contrast imaging is of special importance in thin-film characterization and applications arising thereof.

Fourier transform holography with extended references using a coherent ultra-broadband light source

We demonstrate a technique that enables lensless holographic imaging with extended reference structures, using ultra-broadband radiation sources for illumination. We show that this 'two-pulse imaging' approach works with one- and two-dimensional HERALDO reference structures, and demonstrate that the obtained spectrally resolved data can be used to improve the signal-to-noise ratio in the final image. Intensity stitching of multiple exposures is applied to increase the detected dynamic range, leading to an improved image reconstruction. Furthermore, we show that a combination of holography and iterative phase retrieval can be used to obtain high-quality images quickly and reliably, by using the HERALDO reconstruction as the initial support constraint in the iterative phase retrieval algorithm. A signal-to-noise improvement of two orders of magnitude is achieved compared to the basic HERALDO result.

Attosecond nonlinear optics using gigawatt-scale isolated attosecond pulses

High-energy isolated attosecond pulses required for the most intriguing nonlinear attosecond experiments as well as for attosecond-pump/attosecond-probe spectroscopy are still lacking at present. Here we propose and demonstrate a robust generation method of intense isolated attosecond pulses, which enable us to perform a nonlinear attosecond optics experiment. By combining a two-colour field synthesis and an energy-scaling method of high-order harmonic generation, the maximum pulse energy of the isolated attosecond pulse reaches as high as 1.3 μJ. The generated pulse with a duration of 500 as, as characterized by a nonlinear autocorrelation measurement, is the shortest and highest-energy pulse ever with the ability to induce nonlinear phenomena. The peak power of our tabletop light source reaches 2.6 GW, which even surpasses that of an extreme-ultraviolet free-electron laser.

The short duration of attosecond pulses makes them interesting for ultrafast experiments, although it has so far been difficult to generate isolated attosecond pulses with sufficiently high power. Here the authors achieve high-intensity isolated attosecond pulses with a tabletop setup, based on a scaled-up high-order harmonic generation process.

Monolithic focused reference beam X-ray holography

Fourier transform holography is a highly efficient and robust imaging method, suitable for single-shot imaging at coherent X-ray sources. In its common implementation, the image contrast is limited by the reference signal generated by a small pinhole aperture. Increased pinhole diameters improve the signal, whereas the resolution is diminished. Here we report a new concept to decouple the spatial resolution from the image contrast by employing a Fresnel zone plate to provide the reference beam. Superimposed on-axis images of distinct foci are separated with a novel algorithm. Our method is insensitive to mechanical drift or vibrations and allows for long integration times common at low-flux facilities like high harmonic generation sources. The application of monolithic focused reference beams improves the efficiency of high-resolution X-ray Fourier transform holography beyond all present approaches and paves the path towards sub-10 nm single-shot X-ray imaging.

There is a trade-off between image contrast and spatial resolution in Fourier transform holography, which limits its application in single-shot X-ray imaging. Here Geilhufe et al. use a Fresnel zone plate to decouple these two factors, which improves the efficiency of high-resolution holography imaging.

Monochromatizing and focussing femtosecond high-order harmonic radiation with one optical element

A novel approach for monochromatizing and focussing the Vacuum-Ultraviolet and soft x-ray radiation from high-order harmonic generation of a femtosecond optical laser with only one optical element is presented. We demonstrate that off-axis reflection zone plates applied as focussing monochromators allow for efficiently optimizing the trade-off between energy resolution and temporal dispersion of the femtosecond pulses. In the current experimental realization, we show how the temporal dispersion can be varied between 2 fs and 16 fs with a correlating variation of the energy resolution E/ΔE between 20 and 90 for an off-axis reflection zone plate optimized for harmonic 13 at 20.41 eV. We also show how the focal spot size varies correspondingly between 80 × 90 μm(2) and 290 × 140 μm(2) as determined with a computational fitting approach based on a 3D Gaussian model. The diffraction efficiency for the tested zone plates amounts to up to 10%. We furthermore evaluate the influence of pointing stability on the performance of the zone plates. Based on our results we propose an optimized realization of a dedicated beam line for femtosecond pulses from high-order harmonic generation with an off-axis reflection zone plate.

Impact of wave front and coherence optimization in coherent diffractive imaging

We present single shot nanoscale imaging using a table-top femtosecond soft X-ray laser harmonic source at a wavelength of 32 nm. We show that the phase retrieval process in coherent diffractive imaging critically depends on beam quality. Coherence and image fidelity are measured from single-shot coherent diffraction patterns of isolated nano-patterned slits. Impact of flux, wave front and coherence of the soft X-ray beam on the phase retrieval process and the image quality are discussed. After beam improvements, a final image reconstruction is presented with a spatial resolution of 78 nm (half period) in a single 20 fs laser harmonic shot.

Invited article: Coherent imaging using seeded free-electron laser pulses with variable polarization: first results and research opportunities

FERMI@Elettra, the first vacuum ultraviolet and soft X-ray free-electron laser (FEL) using by default a "seeded" scheme, became operational in 2011 and has been opened to users since December 2012. The parameters of the seeded FERMI FEL pulses and, in particular, the superior control of emitted radiation in terms of spectral purity and stability meet the stringent requirements for single-shot and resonant coherent diffraction imaging (CDI) experiments. The advantages of the intense seeded FERMI pulses with variable polarization have been demonstrated with the first experiments performed using the multipurpose experimental station operated at the diffraction and projection imaging (DiProI) beamline. The results reported here were obtained with fixed non-periodic targets during the commissioning period in 2012 using 20-32 nm wavelength range. They demonstrate that the performance of the FERMI FEL source and the experimental station meets the requirements of CDI, holography, and resonant magnetic scattering in both multi- and single-shot modes. Moreover, we present the first magnetic scattering experiments employing the fully circularly polarized FERMI pulses. The ongoing developments aim at pushing the lateral resolution by using shorter wavelengths provided by double-stage cascaded FERMI FEL-2 and probing ultrafast dynamic processes using different pump-probe schemes, including jitter-free seed laser pump or FEL-pump∕FEL-probe with two color FEL pulses generated by the same electron bunch.

Tabletop single-shot extreme ultraviolet Fourier transform holography of an extended object

We demonstrate single and multi-shot Fourier transform holography with the use of a tabletop extreme ultraviolet laser. The reference wave was produced by a Fresnel zone plate with a central opening that allowed the incident beam to illuminate the sample directly. The high reference wave intensity allows for larger objects to be imaged compared to mask-based lensless Fourier transform holography techniques. We obtain a spatial resolution of 169 nm from a single laser pulse and a resolution of 128 nm from an accumulation of 20 laser pulses for an object ~11x11μm(2) in size. This experiment utilized a tabletop extreme ultraviolet laser that produces a highly coherent ~1.2 ns laser pulse at 46.9 nm wavelength.

Rotation-free holographic imaging with extended arc reference

We proposed and experimentally demonstrated a rotation-free approach of holographic imaging by using an extended arc reference. From the diffraction intensity, the objects were retrieved using a two-step algorithm without a prior knowledge of the information of the sample and reference. This scheme alleviates the convergence problem of coherent diffractive imaging and also promises to achieve a high resolution.

Magnetic imaging by x-ray holography using extended references

We demonstrate magnetic lensless imaging by Fourier transform holography using extended references. A narrow slit milled through an opaque gold mask is used as a holographic reference and magnetic contrast is obtained by x-ray magnetic circular dichroism. We present images of magnetic domains in a Co/Pt multilayer thin film with perpendicular magnetic anisotropy. This technique holds advantages over standard Fourier transform holography, where small holes are used to define the reference beam. An increased intensity through the extended reference reduces the counting time to record the farfield diffraction pattern. Additionally it was found that manufacturing narrow slits is less technologically demanding than the same procedure for holes. We achieve a spatial resolution of ∼30 nm, which was found to be limited by the sample period of the chosen experimental setup.

Mask-assisted deterministic phase-amplitude retrieval from a single far-field intensity diffraction pattern: two experimental proofs of principle using visible light

We recently developed a simple closed-form algorithm, which allows one to reconstruct the complex scalar wavefield at the exit surface of a sample, from the intensity of its far-field coherent diffraction pattern which is obtained in the presence of a suitable object-plane mask. In the first variant of this algorithm, the sample is contained within a uniformly illuminated sharp rectangular aperture in which at least one transverse dimension is at least twice that of the object. In the second variant, the sample is uniformly illuminated and is transversely displaced from an opaque rectangular mask in the object plane. For both variants, the far-field diffraction pattern is first Fourier transformed and then differentiated with respect to both transverse coordinates, in order to deterministically yield a series of independent reconstructions of the sample. Here we give an experimental demonstration of each of these two variants of our technique, using visible light.

Revisiting Bragg's X-ray microscope: scatter based optical transient grating detection of pulsed ionising radiation

Transient optical gratings for detecting ultrafast signals are routine for temporally resolved photochemical investigations. Many processes can contribute to the formation of such gratings; we indicate use of optically scattering centres that can be formed with highly variable latencies in different materials and devices using ionising radiation. Coherent light scattered by these centres can form the short-wavelength-to-optical-wavelength, incoherent-to-coherent basis of a Bragg X-ray microscope, with inherent scope for optical phasing. Depending on the dynamics of the medium chosen, the way is open to both ultrafast pulsed and integrating measurements. For experiments employing brief pulses, we discuss high-dynamic-range short-wavelength diffraction measurements with real-time optical reconstructions. Applications to optical real-time X-ray phase-retrieval are considered.