1
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Lee Y, Oang KY, Kim D, Ihee H. A comparative review of time-resolved x-ray and electron scattering to probe structural dynamics. STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS (MELVILLE, N.Y.) 2024; 11:031301. [PMID: 38706888 PMCID: PMC11065455 DOI: 10.1063/4.0000249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
The structure of molecules, particularly the dynamic changes in structure, plays an essential role in understanding physical and chemical phenomena. Time-resolved (TR) scattering techniques serve as crucial experimental tools for studying structural dynamics, offering direct sensitivity to molecular structures through scattering signals. Over the past decade, the advent of x-ray free-electron lasers (XFELs) and mega-electron-volt ultrafast electron diffraction (MeV-UED) facilities has ushered TR scattering experiments into a new era, garnering significant attention. In this review, we delve into the basic principles of TR scattering experiments, especially focusing on those that employ x-rays and electrons. We highlight the variations in experimental conditions when employing x-rays vs electrons and discuss their complementarity. Additionally, cutting-edge XFELs and MeV-UED facilities for TR x-ray and electron scattering experiments and the experiments performed at those facilities are reviewed. As new facilities are constructed and existing ones undergo upgrades, the landscape for TR x-ray and electron scattering experiments is poised for further expansion. Through this review, we aim to facilitate the effective utilization of these emerging opportunities, assisting researchers in delving deeper into the intricate dynamics of molecular structures.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Key Young Oang
- Radiation Center for Ultrafast Science, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI), Daejeon 34057, South Korea
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2
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Sio H, Krygier A, Braun DG, Rudd RE, Bonev SA, Coppari F, Millot M, Fratanduono DE, Bhandarkar N, Bitter M, Bradley DK, Efthimion PC, Eggert JH, Gao L, Hill KW, Hood R, Hsing W, Izumi N, Kemp G, Kozioziemski B, Landen OL, Le Galloudec K, Lockard TE, Mackinnon A, McNaney JM, Ose N, Park HS, Remington BA, Schneider MB, Stoupin S, Thorn DB, Vonhof S, Wu CJ, Ping Y. Extended X-ray absorption fine structure of dynamically-compressed copper up to 1 terapascal. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7046. [PMID: 37949859 PMCID: PMC10638371 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-42684-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Large laser facilities have recently enabled material characterization at the pressures of Earth and Super-Earth cores. However, the temperature of the compressed materials has been largely unknown, or solely relied on models and simulations, due to lack of diagnostics under these challenging conditions. Here, we report on temperature, density, pressure, and local structure of copper determined from extended x-ray absorption fine structure and velocimetry up to 1 Terapascal. These results nearly double the highest pressure at which extended x-ray absorption fine structure has been reported in any material. In this work, the copper temperature is unexpectedly found to be much higher than predicted when adjacent to diamond layer(s), demonstrating the important influence of the sample environment on the thermal state of materials; this effect may introduce additional temperature uncertainties in some previous experiments using diamond and provides new guidance for future experimental design.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Sio
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA.
| | - A Krygier
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - D G Braun
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - R E Rudd
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - S A Bonev
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - F Coppari
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - M Millot
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - D E Fratanduono
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - N Bhandarkar
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - M Bitter
- Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory, Princeton University, 100 Stellarator Rd, Princeton, NJ, 08540, USA
| | - D K Bradley
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - P C Efthimion
- Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory, Princeton University, 100 Stellarator Rd, Princeton, NJ, 08540, USA
| | - J H Eggert
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - L Gao
- Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory, Princeton University, 100 Stellarator Rd, Princeton, NJ, 08540, USA
| | - K W Hill
- Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory, Princeton University, 100 Stellarator Rd, Princeton, NJ, 08540, USA
| | - R Hood
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - W Hsing
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - N Izumi
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - G Kemp
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - B Kozioziemski
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - O L Landen
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - K Le Galloudec
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - T E Lockard
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - A Mackinnon
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - J M McNaney
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - N Ose
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - H-S Park
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - B A Remington
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - M B Schneider
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - S Stoupin
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - D B Thorn
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - S Vonhof
- General Atomics, 3550 General Atomics Court, San Diego, CA, 92121, USA
| | - C J Wu
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - Y Ping
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
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3
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Myint PC, Sterbentz DM, Brown JL, Stoltzfus BS, Delplanque JPR, Belof JL. Scaling Law for the Onset of Solidification at Extreme Undercooling. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2023; 131:106101. [PMID: 37739355 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.131.106101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
Quasi-isentropic compression enables one to study the solidification of metastable liquid states that are inaccessible through other experimental means. The onset of this nonequilibrium solidification is known to depend on the compression rate and material-specific factors, but this complex interdependence has not been well characterized. In this study, we use a combination of experiments, theory, and computational simulations to derive a general scaling law that quantifies this dependence. One of its applications is a novel means to elucidate melt temperatures at high pressures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip C Myint
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550, USA
| | - Dane M Sterbentz
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550, USA
- Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
| | - Justin L Brown
- Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, USA
| | | | - Jean-Pierre R Delplanque
- Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
| | - Jonathan L Belof
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550, USA
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4
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McMahon MI. Probing extreme states of matter using ultra-intense x-ray radiation. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2021; 34:043001. [PMID: 33725673 DOI: 10.1088/1361-648x/abef26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2020] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Extreme states of matter, that is, matter at extremes of density (pressure) and temperature, can be created in the laboratory either statically or dynamically. In the former, the pressure-temperature state can be maintained for relatively long periods of time, but the sample volume is necessarily extremely small. When the extreme states are generated dynamically, the sample volumes can be larger, but the pressure-temperature conditions are maintained for only short periods of time (ps toμs). In either case, structural information can be obtained from the extreme states by the use of x-ray scattering techniques, but the x-ray beam must be extremely intense in order to obtain sufficient signal from the extremely-small or short-lived sample. In this article I describe the use of x-ray diffraction at synchrotrons and XFELs to investigate how crystal structures evolve as a function of density and temperature. After a brief historical introduction, I describe the developments made at the Synchrotron Radiation Source in the 1990s which enabled the almost routine determination of crystal structure at high pressures, while also revealing that the structural behaviour of materials was much more complex than previously believed. I will then describe how these techniques are used at the current generation of synchrotron and XFEL sources, and then discuss how they might develop further in the future at the next generation of x-ray lightsources.
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Affiliation(s)
- M I McMahon
- SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, and Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions, The University of Edinburgh, Peter Guthrie Tait Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3FD, United Kingdom
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5
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Chen XH, Xue T, Tan BZ, Li XY, Li J. Iterative diffraction pattern retrieval from a single focal construct geometry image. J Appl Crystallogr 2021. [DOI: 10.1107/s1600576721009626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the crystal structure of materials under extreme conditions of pressure and temperature has been revolutionized by major advances in laser-driven dynamic compression and in situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) technology. Instead of the well known Debye–Scherrer configuration, the focal construct geometry (FCG) was introduced to produce high-intensity diffraction data from laser-based in situ XRD experiments without increasing the amount of laser energy, but the resulting reflections suffered from profoundly asymmetrical broadening, leading to inaccuracy in determination of the crystal structure. Inspired by fast-neutron energy spectrum measurements, proposed here is an iterative retrieval method for recovering diffraction data from a single FCG image. This iterative algorithm restores both the peak shape and relative intensity with rapid convergence and requires no prior knowledge about the expected diffraction pattern, allowing the FCG to increase the in situ XRD intensity while simultaneously preserving the angular resolution. The feasibility and validity of the method are shown by successful recovery of the diffraction pattern from both a single simulated FCG image and a single laser-based nanosecond XRD measurement.
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6
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Cerantola V, Rosa AD, Konôpková Z, Torchio R, Brambrink E, Rack A, Zastrau U, Pascarelli S. New frontiers in extreme conditions science at synchrotrons and free electron lasers. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2021; 33:274003. [PMID: 33930892 DOI: 10.1088/1361-648x/abfd50] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Synchrotrons and free electron lasers are unique facilities to probe the atomic structure and electronic properties of matter at extreme thermodynamical conditions. In this context, 'matter at extreme pressures and temperatures' was one of the science drivers for the construction of low emittance 4th generation synchrotron sources such as the Extremely Brilliant Source of the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility and hard x-ray free electron lasers, such as the European x-ray free electron laser. These new user facilities combine static high pressure and dynamic shock compression experiments to outstanding high brilliance and submicron beams. This combination not only increases the data-quality but also enlarges tremendously the accessible pressure, temperature and density space. At the same time, the large spectrum of available complementary x-ray diagnostics for static and shock compression studies opens unprecedented insights into the state of matter at extremes. The article aims at highlighting a new horizon of scientific opportunities based on the synergy between extremely brilliant synchrotrons and hard x-ray free electron lasers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerio Cerantola
- European X-ray Free-Electron Laser, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | | | - Zuzana Konôpková
- European X-ray Free-Electron Laser, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - Raffaella Torchio
- ESRF-The European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, Grenoble 38000, France
| | - Erik Brambrink
- European X-ray Free-Electron Laser, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - Alexander Rack
- ESRF-The European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, Grenoble 38000, France
| | - Ulf Zastrau
- European X-ray Free-Electron Laser, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - Sakura Pascarelli
- European X-ray Free-Electron Laser, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
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7
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Liermann HP, Konôpková Z, Appel K, Prescher C, Schropp A, Cerantola V, Husband RJ, McHardy JD, McMahon MI, McWilliams RS, Pépin CM, Mainberger J, Roeper M, Berghäuser A, Damker H, Talkovski P, Foese M, Kujala N, Ball OB, Baron MA, Briggs R, Bykov M, Bykova E, Chantel J, Coleman AL, Cynn H, Dattelbaum D, Dresselhaus-Marais LE, Eggert JH, Ehm L, Evans WJ, Fiquet G, Frost M, Glazyrin K, Goncharov AF, Hwang H, Jenei Z, Kim JY, Langenhorst F, Lee Y, Makita M, Marquardt H, McBride EE, Merkel S, Morard G, O’Bannon EF, Otzen C, Pace EJ, Pelka A, Pigott JS, Prakapenka VB, Redmer R, Sanchez-Valle C, Schoelmerich M, Speziale S, Spiekermann G, Sturtevant BT, Toleikis S, Velisavljevic N, Wilke M, Yoo CS, Baehtz C, Zastrau U, Strohm C. Novel experimental setup for megahertz X-ray diffraction in a diamond anvil cell at the High Energy Density (HED) instrument of the European X-ray Free-Electron Laser (EuXFEL). JOURNAL OF SYNCHROTRON RADIATION 2021; 28:688-706. [PMID: 33949979 PMCID: PMC8127375 DOI: 10.1107/s1600577521002551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The high-precision X-ray diffraction setup for work with diamond anvil cells (DACs) in interaction chamber 2 (IC2) of the High Energy Density instrument of the European X-ray Free-Electron Laser is described. This includes beamline optics, sample positioning and detector systems located in the multipurpose vacuum chamber. Concepts for pump-probe X-ray diffraction experiments in the DAC are described and their implementation demonstrated during the First User Community Assisted Commissioning experiment. X-ray heating and diffraction of Bi under pressure, obtained using 20 fs X-ray pulses at 17.8 keV and 2.2 MHz repetition, is illustrated through splitting of diffraction peaks, and interpreted employing finite element modeling of the sample chamber in the DAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- H. P. Liermann
- Photon Sciences, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), Notkestraße 85, Hamburg, Germany
- Correspondence e-mail: ,
| | - Z. Konôpková
- European X-Ray Free-Electron Laser Facility GmbH, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - K. Appel
- European X-Ray Free-Electron Laser Facility GmbH, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - C. Prescher
- Photon Sciences, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), Notkestraße 85, Hamburg, Germany
| | - A. Schropp
- Photon Sciences, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), Notkestraße 85, Hamburg, Germany
| | - V. Cerantola
- European X-Ray Free-Electron Laser Facility GmbH, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - R. J. Husband
- Photon Sciences, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), Notkestraße 85, Hamburg, Germany
| | - J. D. McHardy
- School of Physics and Astronomy, Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions, and SUPA, University of Edinburgh, Peter Guthrie Tait Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, United Kingdom
| | - M. I. McMahon
- School of Physics and Astronomy, Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions, and SUPA, University of Edinburgh, Peter Guthrie Tait Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, United Kingdom
| | - R. S. McWilliams
- School of Physics and Astronomy, Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions, and SUPA, University of Edinburgh, Peter Guthrie Tait Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, United Kingdom
- Correspondence e-mail: ,
| | - C. M. Pépin
- CEA, DAM, DIF, F-91297 Arpajon, France
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, Laboratoire Matière en Conditions Extrêmes, 91680 Bruyères-le-Châtel, France
| | - J. Mainberger
- Photon Sciences, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), Notkestraße 85, Hamburg, Germany
| | - M. Roeper
- Photon Sciences, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), Notkestraße 85, Hamburg, Germany
| | - A. Berghäuser
- Helmholtz Zentrum Dresden Rossendorf e.V., 01328 Dresden, Germany
| | - H. Damker
- Photon Sciences, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), Notkestraße 85, Hamburg, Germany
| | - P. Talkovski
- Photon Sciences, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), Notkestraße 85, Hamburg, Germany
| | - M. Foese
- Photon Sciences, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), Notkestraße 85, Hamburg, Germany
| | - N. Kujala
- European X-Ray Free-Electron Laser Facility GmbH, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - O. B. Ball
- School of Physics and Astronomy, Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions, and SUPA, University of Edinburgh, Peter Guthrie Tait Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, United Kingdom
| | - M. A. Baron
- Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie (IMPMC), Sorbonne Université, UMR CNRS 7590, Musée National d’Histoire Naturelle, 4 Place Jussieu, Paris, France
| | - R. Briggs
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA 94550, USA
| | - M. Bykov
- Carnegie Science, Earth and Planets Laboratory, 5241 Broad Branch Road NW, Washington, DC 20015, USA
| | - E. Bykova
- Carnegie Science, Earth and Planets Laboratory, 5241 Broad Branch Road NW, Washington, DC 20015, USA
| | - J. Chantel
- Université de Lille, CNRS, INRAE, Centrale Lille, UMR 8207 – UMET – Unité Matériaux et Transformations, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - A. L. Coleman
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA 94550, USA
| | - H. Cynn
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA 94550, USA
| | - D. Dattelbaum
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
| | | | - J. H. Eggert
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA 94550, USA
| | - L. Ehm
- Mineral Physics Institute, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA
| | - W. J. Evans
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA 94550, USA
| | - G. Fiquet
- Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie (IMPMC), Sorbonne Université, UMR CNRS 7590, Musée National d’Histoire Naturelle, 4 Place Jussieu, Paris, France
| | - M. Frost
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
| | - K. Glazyrin
- Photon Sciences, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), Notkestraße 85, Hamburg, Germany
| | - A. F. Goncharov
- Carnegie Science, Earth and Planets Laboratory, 5241 Broad Branch Road NW, Washington, DC 20015, USA
| | - H. Hwang
- Department of Earth System Sciences, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Zs. Jenei
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA 94550, USA
| | - J.-Y. Kim
- Department of Physics, Research Institute for High Pressure, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
| | - F. Langenhorst
- Institute of Geosciences, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Carl-Zeiss-Promenade 10, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Y. Lee
- Department of Earth System Sciences, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - M. Makita
- European X-Ray Free-Electron Laser Facility GmbH, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - H. Marquardt
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3AN, United Kingdom
| | - E. E. McBride
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
| | - S. Merkel
- Université de Lille, CNRS, INRAE, Centrale Lille, UMR 8207 – UMET – Unité Matériaux et Transformations, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - G. Morard
- Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie (IMPMC), Sorbonne Université, UMR CNRS 7590, Musée National d’Histoire Naturelle, 4 Place Jussieu, Paris, France
- Université Grenoble Alpes, Université Savoie Mont Blanc, CNRS, IRD, IFSTTAR, ISTerre, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - E. F. O’Bannon
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA 94550, USA
| | - C. Otzen
- Photon Sciences, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), Notkestraße 85, Hamburg, Germany
- Institute of Geosciences, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Carl-Zeiss-Promenade 10, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - E. J. Pace
- School of Physics and Astronomy, Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions, and SUPA, University of Edinburgh, Peter Guthrie Tait Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, United Kingdom
| | - A. Pelka
- Helmholtz Zentrum Dresden Rossendorf e.V., 01328 Dresden, Germany
| | - J. S. Pigott
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
- Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - V. B. Prakapenka
- Center for Advanced Radiation Sources, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - R. Redmer
- Institut für Physik, Universität Rostock, D-18051 Rostock, Germany
| | - C. Sanchez-Valle
- Institut für Mineralogie, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - M. Schoelmerich
- European X-Ray Free-Electron Laser Facility GmbH, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - S. Speziale
- GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Telegrafenberg, 14473 Potsdam, Germany
| | - G. Spiekermann
- Institut für Geowissenschaften, Universität Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Straße 24-25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | | | - S. Toleikis
- Photon Sciences, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), Notkestraße 85, Hamburg, Germany
| | - N. Velisavljevic
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA 94550, USA
| | - M. Wilke
- Institut für Geowissenschaften, Universität Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Straße 24-25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - C.-S. Yoo
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Shock Physics, and Materials Science and Engineering, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
| | - C. Baehtz
- Helmholtz Zentrum Dresden Rossendorf e.V., 01328 Dresden, Germany
| | - U. Zastrau
- European X-Ray Free-Electron Laser Facility GmbH, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - C. Strohm
- Photon Sciences, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), Notkestraße 85, Hamburg, Germany
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8
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Denoeud A, Hernandez JA, Vinci T, Benuzzi-Mounaix A, Brygoo S, Berlioux A, Lefevre F, Sollier A, Videau L, Ravasio A, Guarguaglini M, Duthoit L, Loison D, Brambrink E. X-ray powder diffraction in reflection geometry on multi-beam kJ-type laser facilities. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2021; 92:013902. [PMID: 33514214 DOI: 10.1063/5.0020261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
An ultrafast x-ray powder diffraction setup for laser-driven dynamic compression has been developed at the LULI2000 laser facility. X-ray diffraction is performed in reflection geometry from a quasi-monochromatic laser-generated plasma x-ray source. In comparison to a transmission geometry setup, this configuration allows us to probe only a small portion of the compressed sample, as well as to shield the detectors against the x-rays generated by the laser-plasma interaction on the front side of the target. Thus, this new platform facilitates probing of spatially and temporarily uniform thermodynamic conditions and enables us to study samples of a large range of atomic numbers, thicknesses, and compression dynamics. As a proof-of-concept, we report direct structural measurements of the bcc-hcp transition both in shock and ramp-compressed polycrystalline iron with diffraction signals recorded between 2θ ∼ 30° and ∼150°. In parallel, the pressure and temperature history of probed samples is measured by rear-side visible diagnostics (velocimetry and pyrometry).
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Affiliation(s)
- A Denoeud
- CEA, DAM, DIF, F-91297 Arpajon, France
| | - J-A Hernandez
- LULI, CNRS, CEA, Sorbonne Université, École Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, F-91128 Palaiseau, France
| | - T Vinci
- LULI, CNRS, CEA, Sorbonne Université, École Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, F-91128 Palaiseau, France
| | - A Benuzzi-Mounaix
- LULI, CNRS, CEA, Sorbonne Université, École Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, F-91128 Palaiseau, France
| | - S Brygoo
- CEA, DAM, DIF, F-91297 Arpajon, France
| | - A Berlioux
- LULI, CNRS, CEA, Sorbonne Université, École Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, F-91128 Palaiseau, France
| | - F Lefevre
- LULI, CNRS, CEA, Sorbonne Université, École Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, F-91128 Palaiseau, France
| | - A Sollier
- CEA, DAM, DIF, F-91297 Arpajon, France
| | - L Videau
- CEA, DAM, DIF, F-91297 Arpajon, France
| | - A Ravasio
- LULI, CNRS, CEA, Sorbonne Université, École Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, F-91128 Palaiseau, France
| | - M Guarguaglini
- LULI, CNRS, CEA, Sorbonne Université, École Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, F-91128 Palaiseau, France
| | - L Duthoit
- CEA, DAM, DIF, F-91297 Arpajon, France
| | - D Loison
- Univ Rennes, CNRS, IPR (Institut de Physique de Rennes)-UMR 6251, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - E Brambrink
- LULI, CNRS, CEA, Sorbonne Université, École Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, F-91128 Palaiseau, France
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9
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Chen X, Li B, Xue T, Li J. Focal construct geometry for high-intensity x-ray diffraction from laser-shocked polycrystalline. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2020; 91:083908. [PMID: 32872935 DOI: 10.1063/1.5131857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
An increasing number of dynamic experiments, especially those involving laser drive, are employing in situ x-ray diffraction as a probe to interrogate structure evolution between states of matter under extreme pressure and temperature. We present an alternative configuration, focal construct geometry, for in situ x-ray diffraction to measure the structure and evolution of dynamically compressed polycrystalline materials on a laser platform. This configuration makes full use of the isotropically emitted He-α x rays by employing an annular (or semi-annular) collimator rather than a regular pinhole collimator and thus increases the flux of incident x rays reaching the sample as well as the intensity of the diffracted x rays, enabling the detection of a diffraction pattern with less laser energy. Its effectiveness and applicability are validated against the conventional Debye-Scherrer geometry through direct molecular dynamics simulations and x-ray diffraction simulations for two representative shock-induced phase transition events, solid-solid and solid-liquid (or melting). This configuration reproduces all the Debye-Scherrer diffraction profiles in good accuracy and demonstrates superior efficiency in utilizing the isotropic x-ray source and harvesting diffracted x rays while preserving the angular resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- XiaoHui Chen
- National Key Laboratory of Shock Wave and Detonation Physics, Mianyang, 621900 Sichuan, China
| | - Bo Li
- National Key Laboratory of Shock Wave and Detonation Physics, Mianyang, 621900 Sichuan, China
| | - Tao Xue
- National Key Laboratory of Shock Wave and Detonation Physics, Mianyang, 621900 Sichuan, China
| | - Jun Li
- National Key Laboratory of Shock Wave and Detonation Physics, Mianyang, 621900 Sichuan, China
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10
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Orban D, Banesh D, Tauxe C, Biwer CM, Biswas A, Saavedra R, Sweeney C, Sandberg RL, Bolme CA, Ahrens J, Rogers D. Cinema:Bandit: a visualization application for beamline science demonstrated on XFEL shock physics experiments. JOURNAL OF SYNCHROTRON RADIATION 2020; 27:1-10. [PMID: 31868729 DOI: 10.1107/s1600577519014322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
A new visualization tool, Cinema:Bandit, and its demonstration with a continuous workflow for analyzing shock physics experiments and visually exploring the data in real time at X-ray light sources is presented. Cinema:Bandit is an open-source, web-based visualization application in which the experimenter may explore an aggregated dataset to inform real-time beamline decisions and enable post hoc data analysis. The tool integrates with experimental workflows that process raw detector data into a simple database format, and it allows visualization of disparate data types, including experimental parameters, line graphs, and images. Use of parallel coordinates accommodates the irregular sampling of experimental parameters and allows for display and filtering of both experimental inputs and measurements. The tool is demonstrated on a dataset of shock-compressed titanium collected at the Matter in Extreme Conditions hutch at the Linac Coherent Light Source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Orban
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
| | - Divya Banesh
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
| | - Cameron Tauxe
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
| | | | - Ayan Biswas
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
| | - Ramon Saavedra
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
| | | | | | - C A Bolme
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
| | - James Ahrens
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
| | - David Rogers
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
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11
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Heighway PG, Sliwa M, McGonegle D, Wehrenberg C, Bolme CA, Eggert J, Higginbotham A, Lazicki A, Lee HJ, Nagler B, Park HS, Rudd RE, Smith RF, Suggit MJ, Swift D, Tavella F, Remington BA, Wark JS. Nonisentropic Release of a Shocked Solid. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2019; 123:245501. [PMID: 31922830 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.123.245501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2019] [Revised: 09/09/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
We present molecular dynamics simulations of shock and release in micron-scale tantalum crystals that exhibit postbreakout temperatures far exceeding those expected under the standard assumption of isentropic release. We show via an energy-budget analysis that this is due to plastic-work heating from material strength that largely counters thermoelastic cooling. The simulations are corroborated by experiments where the release temperatures of laser-shocked tantalum foils are deduced from their thermal strains via in situ x-ray diffraction and are found to be close to those behind the shock.
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Affiliation(s)
- P G Heighway
- Department of Physics, Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - M Sliwa
- Department of Physics, Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - D McGonegle
- Department of Physics, Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - C Wehrenberg
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, P.O. Box 808, Livermore, California 94550, USA
| | - C A Bolme
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Bikini Atoll Road, SM-30, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
| | - J Eggert
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, P.O. Box 808, Livermore, California 94550, USA
| | - A Higginbotham
- York Plasma Institute, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | - A Lazicki
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, P.O. Box 808, Livermore, California 94550, USA
| | - H J Lee
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - B Nagler
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - H-S Park
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, P.O. Box 808, Livermore, California 94550, USA
| | - R E Rudd
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, P.O. Box 808, Livermore, California 94550, USA
| | - R F Smith
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, P.O. Box 808, Livermore, California 94550, USA
| | - M J Suggit
- Department of Physics, Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - D Swift
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, P.O. Box 808, Livermore, California 94550, USA
| | - F Tavella
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - B A Remington
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, P.O. Box 808, Livermore, California 94550, USA
| | - J S Wark
- Department of Physics, Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
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12
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Coleman AL, Gorman MG, Briggs R, McWilliams RS, McGonegle D, Bolme CA, Gleason AE, Fratanduono DE, Smith RF, Galtier E, Lee HJ, Nagler B, Granados E, Collins GW, Eggert JH, Wark JS, McMahon MI. Identification of Phase Transitions and Metastability in Dynamically Compressed Antimony Using Ultrafast X-Ray Diffraction. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2019; 122:255704. [PMID: 31347883 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.122.255704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2018] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Ultrafast x-ray diffraction at the LCLS x-ray free electron laser has been used to resolve the structural behavior of antimony under shock compression to 59 GPa. Antimony is seen to transform to the incommensurate, host-guest phase Sb-II at ∼11 GPa, which forms on nanosecond timescales with ordered guest-atom chains. The high-pressure bcc phase Sb-III is observed above ∼15 GPa, some 8 GPa lower than in static compression studies, and mixed Sb-III/liquid diffraction are obtained between 38 and 59 GPa. An additional phase which does not exist under static compression, Sb-I^{'}, is also observed between 8 and 12 GPa, beyond the normal stability field of Sb-I, and resembles Sb-I with a resolved Peierls distortion. The incommensurate Sb-II high-pressure phase can be recovered metastably on release to ambient pressure, where it is stable for more than 10 ns.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Coleman
- SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, and Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, United Kingdom
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94500, USA
| | - M G Gorman
- SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, and Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, United Kingdom
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94500, USA
| | - R Briggs
- SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, and Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, United Kingdom
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94500, USA
| | - R S McWilliams
- SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, and Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, United Kingdom
| | - D McGonegle
- Department of Physics, Clarendon Laboratory, Parks Road, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - C A Bolme
- Shock and Detonation Physics, Los Alamos National Laboratory, P.O. Box 1663, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
| | - A E Gleason
- Shock and Detonation Physics, Los Alamos National Laboratory, P.O. Box 1663, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
- Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - D E Fratanduono
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94500, USA
| | - R F Smith
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94500, USA
| | - E Galtier
- Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS), SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - H J Lee
- Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS), SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - B Nagler
- Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS), SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - E Granados
- Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS), SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - G W Collins
- Department of Mechanical of Engineering, University of Rochester, 235 Hopeman Building, P.O. Box 270132, Rochester, New York 12647, USA
| | - J H Eggert
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94500, USA
| | - J S Wark
- Department of Physics, Clarendon Laboratory, Parks Road, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - M I McMahon
- SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, and Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, United Kingdom
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13
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Abstract
A review that summarizes the most recent technological developments in the field of ultrafast structural dynamics with focus on the use of ultrashort X-ray and electron pulses follows. Atomistic views of chemical processes and phase transformations have long been the exclusive domain of computer simulators. The advent of femtosecond (fs) hard X-ray and fs-electron diffraction techniques made it possible to bring such a level of scrutiny to the experimental area. The following review article provides a summary of the main ultrafast techniques that enabled the generation of atomically resolved movies utilizing ultrashort X-ray and electron pulses. Recent advances are discussed with emphasis on synchrotron-based methods, tabletop fs-X-ray plasma sources, ultrabright fs-electron diffractometers, and timing techniques developed to further improve the temporal resolution and fully exploit the use of intense and ultrashort X-ray free electron laser (XFEL) pulses.
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14
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Briggs R, Torchio R, Sollier A, Occelli F, Videau L, Kretzschmar N, Wulff M. Observation of the shock-induced β-Sn to b.c.t.-Sn transition using time-resolved X-ray diffraction. JOURNAL OF SYNCHROTRON RADIATION 2019; 26:96-101. [PMID: 30655473 DOI: 10.1107/s1600577518015059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/24/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Time-resolved X-ray diffraction measurements have been carried out on dynamically compressed Sn up to a maximum pressure of ∼13 GPa at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility. The phase transition from β-Sn to body-centered tetragonal (b.c.t.) Sn has been observed using synchrotron X-ray diffraction for the first time undergoing shock compression and release. Following maximum compression, the sample releases to lower pressures for several nanoseconds until the reverse transition occurs. The data are in good agreement with previous shock boundaries that indicate that the β-Sn phase is stable ∼2 GPa higher than the static boundary upon compression and the b.c.t.-Sn phase is stable ∼1 GPa lower upon release. The transition to the high-pressure phase reveals a loss of texture in the X-ray diffraction data from the `quasi' single-crystal β-Sn structure to a more powder-like Debye-Scherrer ring.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Briggs
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, BP 220, F-38043 Grenoble Cedex, France
| | - R Torchio
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, BP 220, F-38043 Grenoble Cedex, France
| | - A Sollier
- CEA, DAM, DIF, F-91297 Arpajon, France
| | - F Occelli
- CEA, DAM, DIF, F-91297 Arpajon, France
| | - L Videau
- CEA, DAM, DIF, F-91297 Arpajon, France
| | - N Kretzschmar
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, BP 220, F-38043 Grenoble Cedex, France
| | - M Wulff
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, BP 220, F-38043 Grenoble Cedex, France
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15
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Hartley NJ, Vorberger J, Döppner T, Cowan T, Falcone RW, Fletcher LB, Frydrych S, Galtier E, Gamboa EJ, Gericke DO, Glenzer SH, Granados E, MacDonald MJ, MacKinnon AJ, McBride EE, Nam I, Neumayer P, Pak A, Rohatsch K, Saunders AM, Schuster AK, Sun P, van Driel T, Kraus D. Liquid Structure of Shock-Compressed Hydrocarbons at Megabar Pressures. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2018; 121:245501. [PMID: 30608736 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.121.245501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Revised: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We present results for the ionic structure in hydrocarbons (polystyrene, polyethylene) that were shock compressed to pressures of up to 190 GPa, inducing rapid melting of the samples. The structure of the resulting liquid is then probed using in situ diffraction by an x-ray free electron laser beam, demonstrating the capability to obtain reliable diffraction data in a single shot, even for low-Z samples without long range order. The data agree well with ab initio simulations, validating the ability of such approaches to model mixed samples in states where complex interparticle bonds remain, and showing that simpler models are not necessarily valid. While the results clearly exclude the possibility of complete carbon-hydrogen demixing at the conditions probed, they also, in contrast to previous predictions, indicate that diffraction is not always a sufficient diagnostic for this phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- N J Hartley
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany
- Open and Transdisciplinary Research Institute, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - J Vorberger
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany
| | - T Döppner
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550, USA
| | - T Cowan
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany
- Technische Universität Dresden, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - R W Falcone
- Department of Physics, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
| | - L B Fletcher
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94309, USA
| | - S Frydrych
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550, USA
- Technische Universität Darmstadt, Schlossgartenstraße 9, 64289 Darmstadt, Germany
| | - E Galtier
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94309, USA
| | - E J Gamboa
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94309, USA
| | - D O Gericke
- Centre for Fusion, Space and Astrophysics, Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - S H Glenzer
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94309, USA
| | - E Granados
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94309, USA
| | - M J MacDonald
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94309, USA
- University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
| | - A J MacKinnon
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94309, USA
| | - E E McBride
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94309, USA
- European XFEL GmbH, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - I Nam
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94309, USA
| | - P Neumayer
- GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung GmbH, Planckstraße 1, 64291 Darmstadt, Germany
| | - A Pak
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550, USA
| | - K Rohatsch
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany
- Technische Universität Dresden, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - A M Saunders
- Department of Physics, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
| | - A K Schuster
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany
- Technische Universität Dresden, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - P Sun
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94309, USA
| | - T van Driel
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94309, USA
| | - D Kraus
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany
- Technische Universität Dresden, 01062 Dresden, Germany
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16
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Gorman MG, Coleman AL, Briggs R, McWilliams RS, McGonegle D, Bolme CA, Gleason AE, Galtier E, Lee HJ, Granados E, Śliwa M, Sanloup C, Rothman S, Fratanduono DE, Smith RF, Collins GW, Eggert JH, Wark JS, McMahon MI. Femtosecond diffraction studies of solid and liquid phase changes in shock-compressed bismuth. Sci Rep 2018; 8:16927. [PMID: 30446720 PMCID: PMC6240068 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35260-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Bismuth has long been a prototypical system for investigating phase transformations and melting at high pressure. Despite decades of experimental study, however, the lattice-level response of Bi to rapid (shock) compression and the relationship between structures occurring dynamically and those observed during slow (static) compression, are still not clearly understood. We have determined the structural response of shock-compressed Bi to 68 GPa using femtosecond X-ray diffraction, thereby revealing the phase transition sequence and equation-of-state in unprecedented detail for the first time. We show that shocked-Bi exhibits a marked departure from equilibrium behavior - the incommensurate Bi-III phase is not observed, but rather a new metastable phase, and the Bi-V phase is formed at significantly lower pressures compared to static compression studies. We also directly measure structural changes in a shocked liquid for the first time. These observations reveal new behaviour in the solid and liquid phases of a shocked material and give important insights into the validity of comparing static and dynamic datasets.
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Affiliation(s)
- M G Gorman
- SUPA, School of Physics & Astronomy, and Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3FD, UK.
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA, 94500, USA.
| | - A L Coleman
- SUPA, School of Physics & Astronomy, and Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3FD, UK
| | - R Briggs
- SUPA, School of Physics & Astronomy, and Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3FD, UK
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA, 94500, USA
| | - R S McWilliams
- SUPA, School of Physics & Astronomy, and Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3FD, UK
| | - D McGonegle
- Department of Physics, Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PU, UK
| | - C A Bolme
- Shock and Detonation Physics, Los Alamos National Laboratory, P.O. Box 1663, Los Alamos, New Mexico, 87545, USA
| | - A E Gleason
- Shock and Detonation Physics, Los Alamos National Laboratory, P.O. Box 1663, Los Alamos, New Mexico, 87545, USA
- Stanford Institute for Materials and Energy Sciences, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California, 94025, USA
| | - E Galtier
- Linac Coherent Light Source, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, 94025, USA
| | - H J Lee
- Linac Coherent Light Source, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, 94025, USA
| | - E Granados
- Linac Coherent Light Source, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, 94025, USA
| | - M Śliwa
- Department of Physics, Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PU, UK
| | - C Sanloup
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS-INSU, Institut des Sciences de la Terre Paris, F-75005, Paris, France
| | - S Rothman
- Atomic Weapons Establishment, Aldermaston, Reading, RG7 4PR, United Kingdom
| | - D E Fratanduono
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA, 94500, USA
| | - R F Smith
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA, 94500, USA
| | - G W Collins
- Departments of Mechanical Engineering, Physics and Astronomy, and Laboratory for Laser Energetics, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14627, USA
| | - J H Eggert
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA, 94500, USA
| | - J S Wark
- Department of Physics, Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PU, UK
| | - M I McMahon
- SUPA, School of Physics & Astronomy, and Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3FD, UK
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17
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Turneaure SJ, Sharma SM, Gupta YM. Nanosecond Melting and Recrystallization in Shock-Compressed Silicon. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2018; 121:135701. [PMID: 30312076 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.121.135701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2018] [Revised: 07/10/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
In situ, time-resolved, x-ray diffraction and simultaneous continuum measurements were used to examine structural changes in Si shock compressed to 54 GPa. Shock melting was unambiguously established above ∼31-33 GPa, through the vanishing of all sharp crystalline diffraction peaks and the emergence of a single broad diffraction ring. Reshock from the melt boundary results in rapid (nanosecond) recrystallization to the hexagonal-close-packed Si phase and further supports melting. Our results also provide new constraints on the high-temperature, high-pressure Si phase diagram.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan J Turneaure
- Institute for Shock Physics, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USA
| | - Surinder M Sharma
- Institute for Shock Physics, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USA
| | - Y M Gupta
- Institute for Shock Physics, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USA
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USA
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18
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Sliwa M, McGonegle D, Wehrenberg C, Bolme CA, Heighway PG, Higginbotham A, Lazicki A, Lee HJ, Nagler B, Park HS, Rudd RE, Suggit MJ, Swift D, Tavella F, Zepeda-Ruiz L, Remington BA, Wark JS. Femtosecond X-Ray Diffraction Studies of the Reversal of the Microstructural Effects of Plastic Deformation during Shock Release of Tantalum. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2018; 120:265502. [PMID: 30004719 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.120.265502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
We have used femtosecond x-ray diffraction to study laser-shocked fiber-textured polycrystalline tantalum targets as the 37-253 GPa shock waves break out from the free surface. We extract the time and depth-dependent strain profiles within the Ta target as the rarefaction wave travels back into the bulk of the sample. In agreement with molecular dynamics simulations, the lattice rotation and the twins that are formed under shock compression are observed to be almost fully eliminated by the rarefaction process.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Sliwa
- Department of Physics, Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - D McGonegle
- Department of Physics, Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - C Wehrenberg
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, PO Box 808, Livermore, California 94550, USA
| | - C A Bolme
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Bikini Atoll Road, SM-30, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
| | - P G Heighway
- Department of Physics, Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - A Higginbotham
- York Plasma Institute, Department of Physics, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | - A Lazicki
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, PO Box 808, Livermore, California 94550, USA
| | - H J Lee
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - B Nagler
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - H S Park
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, PO Box 808, Livermore, California 94550, USA
| | - R E Rudd
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, PO Box 808, Livermore, California 94550, USA
| | - M J Suggit
- Department of Physics, Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - D Swift
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, PO Box 808, Livermore, California 94550, USA
| | - F Tavella
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - L Zepeda-Ruiz
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, PO Box 808, Livermore, California 94550, USA
| | - B A Remington
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, PO Box 808, Livermore, California 94550, USA
| | - J S Wark
- Department of Physics, Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
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19
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Seddon EA, Clarke JA, Dunning DJ, Masciovecchio C, Milne CJ, Parmigiani F, Rugg D, Spence JCH, Thompson NR, Ueda K, Vinko SM, Wark JS, Wurth W. Short-wavelength free-electron laser sources and science: a review. REPORTS ON PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. PHYSICAL SOCIETY (GREAT BRITAIN) 2017; 80:115901. [PMID: 29059048 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6633/aa7cca] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
This review is focused on free-electron lasers (FELs) in the hard to soft x-ray regime. The aim is to provide newcomers to the area with insights into: the basic physics of FELs, the qualities of the radiation they produce, the challenges of transmitting that radiation to end users and the diversity of current scientific applications. Initial consideration is given to FEL theory in order to provide the foundation for discussion of FEL output properties and the technical challenges of short-wavelength FELs. This is followed by an overview of existing x-ray FEL facilities, future facilities and FEL frontiers. To provide a context for information in the above sections, a detailed comparison of the photon pulse characteristics of FEL sources with those of other sources of high brightness x-rays is made. A brief summary of FEL beamline design and photon diagnostics then precedes an overview of FEL scientific applications. Recent highlights are covered in sections on structural biology, atomic and molecular physics, photochemistry, non-linear spectroscopy, shock physics, solid density plasmas. A short industrial perspective is also included to emphasise potential in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- E A Seddon
- ASTeC, STFC Daresbury Laboratory, Sci-Tech Daresbury, Keckwick Lane, Daresbury, Cheshire, WA4 4AD, United Kingdom. The School of Physics and Astronomy and Photon Science Institute, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom. The Cockcroft Institute, Sci-Tech Daresbury, Keckwick Lane, Daresbury, Cheshire, WA4 4AD, United Kingdom
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20
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Brown SB, Hashim A, Gleason A, Galtier E, Nam I, Xing Z, Fry A, MacKinnon A, Nagler B, Granados E, Lee HJ. Shock drive capabilities of a 30-Joule laser at the matter in extreme conditions hutch of the Linac Coherent Light Source. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2017; 88:105113. [PMID: 29092479 DOI: 10.1063/1.4997756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
We measure the shock drive capabilities of a 30 J, nanosecond, 527 nm laser system at the matter in extreme conditions hutch of the Linac Coherent Light Source. Using a velocity interferometer system for any reflector, we ascertain the maximum instantaneous ablation pressure and characterize its dependence on a drive laser spot size, spatial profile, and temporal profile. We also examine the effects of these parameters on shock spatial and temporal uniformity. Our analysis shows the drive laser capable of generating instantaneous ablation pressures exceeding 160 GPa while maintaining a 1D shock profile. We find that slope pulses provide higher instantaneous ablation pressures than plateau pulses. Our results show instantaneous ablation pressures comparable to those measured at the Omega Laser Facility in Rochester, NY under similar optical drive parameters. Finally, we analyze how optical laser ablation pressures are compare with known scaling relations, accounting for variable laser wavelengths.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Akel Hashim
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - Arianna Gleason
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
| | - Eric Galtier
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - Inhyuk Nam
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - Zhou Xing
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - Alan Fry
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - Andy MacKinnon
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - Bob Nagler
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - Eduardo Granados
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - Hae Ja Lee
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
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21
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Abstract
How does a crystal melt? How long does it take for melt nuclei to grow? The melting mechanisms have been addressed by several theoretical and experimental works, covering a subnanosecond time window with sample sizes of tens of nanometers and thus suitable to determine the onset of the process but unable to unveil the following dynamics. On the other hand, macroscopic observations of phase transitions, with millisecond or longer time resolution, account for processes occurring at surfaces and time limited by thermal contact with the environment. Here, we fill the gap between these two extremes, investigating the melting of ice in the entire mesoscopic regime. A bulk ice I h or ice VI sample is homogeneously heated by a picosecond infrared pulse, which delivers all of the energy necessary for complete melting. The evolution of melt/ice interfaces thereafter is monitored by Mie scattering with nanosecond resolution, for all of the time needed for the sample to reequilibrate. The growth of the liquid domains, over distances of micrometers, takes hundreds of nanoseconds, a time orders of magnitude larger than expected from simple H-bond dynamics.
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22
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Briggs R, Gorman MG, Coleman AL, McWilliams RS, McBride EE, McGonegle D, Wark JS, Peacock L, Rothman S, Macleod SG, Bolme CA, Gleason AE, Collins GW, Eggert JH, Fratanduono DE, Smith RF, Galtier E, Granados E, Lee HJ, Nagler B, Nam I, Xing Z, McMahon MI. Ultrafast X-Ray Diffraction Studies of the Phase Transitions and Equation of State of Scandium Shock Compressed to 82 GPa. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2017; 118:025501. [PMID: 28128621 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.118.025501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Using x-ray diffraction at the Linac Coherent Light Source x-ray free-electron laser, we have determined simultaneously and self-consistently the phase transitions and equation of state (EOS) of the lightest transition metal, scandium, under shock compression. On compression scandium undergoes a structural phase transition between 32 and 35 GPa to the same bcc structure seen at high temperatures at ambient pressures, and then a further transition at 46 GPa to the incommensurate host-guest polymorph found above 21 GPa in static compression at room temperature. Shock melting of the host-guest phase is observed between 53 and 72 GPa with the disappearance of Bragg scattering and the growth of a broad asymmetric diffraction peak from the high-density liquid.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Briggs
- SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, and Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions, The University of Edinburgh, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JZ, United Kingdom
| | - M G Gorman
- SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, and Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions, The University of Edinburgh, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JZ, United Kingdom
| | - A L Coleman
- SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, and Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions, The University of Edinburgh, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JZ, United Kingdom
| | - R S McWilliams
- SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, and Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions, The University of Edinburgh, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JZ, United Kingdom
| | - E E McBride
- European XFEL, Albert-Einstein-Ring 19, D-22761 Hamburg, Germany
| | - D McGonegle
- Department of Physics, Clarendon Laboratory, Parks Road, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - J S Wark
- Department of Physics, Clarendon Laboratory, Parks Road, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - L Peacock
- Atomic Weapons Establishment, Aldermaston, Reading RG7 4PR, United Kingdom
| | - S Rothman
- Atomic Weapons Establishment, Aldermaston, Reading RG7 4PR, United Kingdom
| | - S G Macleod
- Atomic Weapons Establishment, Aldermaston, Reading, RG7 4PR, United Kingdom and Institute of Shock Physics, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - C A Bolme
- Shock and Detonation Physics, Los Alamos National Laboratory, P.O. Box 1663, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
| | - A E Gleason
- Shock and Detonation Physics, Los Alamos National Laboratory, P.O. Box 1663, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
| | - G W Collins
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 6000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94500, USA
| | - J H Eggert
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 6000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94500, USA
| | - D E Fratanduono
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 6000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94500, USA
| | - R F Smith
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 6000 East Avenue, Livermore, California 94500, USA
| | - E Galtier
- Linac Coherent Light Source, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - E Granados
- Linac Coherent Light Source, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - H J Lee
- Linac Coherent Light Source, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - B Nagler
- Linac Coherent Light Source, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - I Nam
- Linac Coherent Light Source, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - Z Xing
- Linac Coherent Light Source, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - M I McMahon
- SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, and Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions, The University of Edinburgh, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3JZ, United Kingdom and Research Complex at Harwell, Didcot, Oxon OX11 0FA, United Kingdom
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23
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Structural Dynamics of Materials under Shock Compression Investigated with Synchrotron Radiation. METALS 2016. [DOI: 10.3390/met6010017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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24
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Cho BI, Ogitsu T, Engelhorn K, Correa AA, Ping Y, Lee JW, Bae LJ, Prendergast D, Falcone RW, Heimann PA. Measurement of Electron-Ion Relaxation in Warm Dense Copper. Sci Rep 2016; 6:18843. [PMID: 26733236 PMCID: PMC4702138 DOI: 10.1038/srep18843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2015] [Accepted: 11/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Experimental investigation of electron-ion coupling and electron heat capacity of copper in warm and dense states are presented. From time-resolved x-ray absorption spectroscopy, the temporal evolution of electron temperature is obtained for non-equilibrium warm dense copper heated by an intense femtosecond laser pulse. Electron heat capacity and electron-ion coupling are inferred from the initial electron temperature and its decrease over 10 ps. Data are compared with various theoretical models.
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Affiliation(s)
- B I Cho
- Center for Relativistic Laser Science, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Gwangju, 500-712, Korea.,Department of Physics and Photon Science, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju, 500-712, Korea
| | - T Ogitsu
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA 94550, USA
| | - K Engelhorn
- Advanced Light Source, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - A A Correa
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA 94550, USA
| | - Y Ping
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA 94550, USA
| | - J W Lee
- Center for Relativistic Laser Science, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Gwangju, 500-712, Korea.,Department of Physics and Photon Science, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju, 500-712, Korea
| | - L J Bae
- Center for Relativistic Laser Science, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Gwangju, 500-712, Korea.,Department of Physics and Photon Science, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju, 500-712, Korea
| | - D Prendergast
- Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
| | - R W Falcone
- Department of Physics, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - P A Heimann
- Linac Coherent Light Source, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
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