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Singal K, Dimitriyev MS, Gonzalez SE, Cachine AP, Quinn S, Matsumoto EA. Programming mechanics in knitted materials, stitch by stitch. Nat Commun 2024; 15:2622. [PMID: 38521784 PMCID: PMC10960873 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46498-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Knitting turns yarn, a 1D material, into a 2D fabric that is flexible, durable, and can be patterned to adopt a wide range of 3D geometries. Like other mechanical metamaterials, the elasticity of knitted fabrics is an emergent property of the local stitch topology and pattern that cannot solely be attributed to the yarn itself. Thus, knitting can be viewed as an additive manufacturing technique that allows for stitch-by-stitch programming of elastic properties and has applications in many fields ranging from soft robotics and wearable electronics to engineered tissue and architected materials. However, predicting these mechanical properties based on the stitch type remains elusive. Here we untangle the relationship between changes in stitch topology and emergent elasticity in several types of knitted fabrics. We combine experiment and simulation to construct a constitutive model for the nonlinear bulk response of these fabrics. This model serves as a basis for composite fabrics with bespoke mechanical properties, which crucially do not depend on the constituent yarn.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishma Singal
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - Michael S Dimitriyev
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Sarah E Gonzalez
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - A Patrick Cachine
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - Sam Quinn
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - Elisabetta A Matsumoto
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA.
- International Institute for Sustainability with Knotted Chiral Meta Matter (WPI-SKCM2), Hiroshima University, Higashihiroshima, 739-8526, Japan.
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2
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Patil VP, Tuazon H, Kaufman E, Chakrabortty T, Qin D, Dunkel J, Bhamla MS. Ultrafast reversible self-assembly of living tangled matter. Science 2023; 380:392-398. [PMID: 37104611 DOI: 10.1126/science.ade7759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/29/2023]
Abstract
Tangled active filaments are ubiquitous in nature, from chromosomal DNA and cilia carpets to root networks and worm collectives. How activity and elasticity facilitate collective topological transformations in living tangled matter is not well understood. We studied California blackworms (Lumbriculus variegatus), which slowly form tangles in minutes but can untangle in milliseconds. Combining ultrasound imaging, theoretical analysis, and simulations, we developed and validated a mechanistic model that explains how the kinematics of individual active filaments determines their emergent collective topological dynamics. The model reveals that resonantly alternating helical waves enable both tangle formation and ultrafast untangling. By identifying generic dynamical principles of topological self-transformations, our results can provide guidance for designing classes of topologically tunable active materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vishal P Patil
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, 475 Via Ortega, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Harry Tuazon
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30318, USA
| | - Emily Kaufman
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30318, USA
| | - Tuhin Chakrabortty
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30318, USA
| | - David Qin
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Jörn Dunkel
- Department of Mathematics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - M Saad Bhamla
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30318, USA
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3
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Crassous J. Discrete-element-method model for frictional fibers. Phys Rev E 2023; 107:025003. [PMID: 36932511 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.107.025003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
We present a discrete-element-method algorithm for the simulation of elastic fibers in frictional contacts. The fibers are modeled as chains of cylindrical segments connected to each other by springs taking into account elongation, bending, and torsion forces. The frictional contacts between the cylinders are modeled using a Cundall and Strack model routinely used in granular material simulations. The physical scales for simulations, the determination and the tracking of contacts, and the algorithm are discussed. Tests on different situations involving few or many contact points are presented and compared to experiments or to theoretical predictions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jérôme Crassous
- Université Rennes, CNRS, IPR (Institut de Physique de Rennes) - UMR 6251, F-35000 Rennes, France
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4
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Rios de Anda I, Wilkins JW, Robinson JF, Royall CP, Sear RP. Modeling the filtration efficiency of a woven fabric: The role of multiple lengthscales. PHYSICS OF FLUIDS (WOODBURY, N.Y. : 1994) 2022; 34:033301. [PMID: 35342280 PMCID: PMC8939465 DOI: 10.1063/5.0074229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
During the COVID-19 pandemic, many millions have worn masks made of woven fabric to reduce the risk of transmission of COVID-19. Masks are essentially air filters worn on the face that should filter out as many of the dangerous particles as possible. Here, the dangerous particles are the droplets containing the virus that are exhaled by an infected person. Woven fabric is unlike the material used in standard air filters. Woven fabric consists of fibers twisted together into yarns that are then woven into fabric. There are, therefore, two lengthscales: the diameters of (i) the fiber and (ii) the yarn. Standard air filters have only (i). To understand how woven fabrics filter, we have used confocal microscopy to take three-dimensional images of woven fabric. We then used the image to perform lattice Boltzmann simulations of the air flow through fabric. With this flow field, we calculated the filtration efficiency for particles a micrometer and larger in diameter. In agreement with experimental measurements by others, we found that for particles in this size range, the filtration efficiency is low. For particles with a diameter of 1.5 μm, our estimated efficiency is in the range 2.5%-10%. The low efficiency is due to most of the air flow being channeled through relatively large (tens of micrometers across) inter-yarn pores. So, we conclude that due to the hierarchical structure of woven fabrics, they are expected to filter poorly.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jake W. Wilkins
- Department of Physics, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Richard P. Sear
- Department of Physics, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, United Kingdom
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed:. URL:https://richardsear.me/
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5
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Seguin A, Crassous J. Twist-Controlled Force Amplification and Spinning Tension Transition in Yarn. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2022; 128:078002. [PMID: 35244412 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.128.078002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Combining experiments and numerical simulations with a mechanical-statistical model of twisted yarns, we discuss the spinning transition between a cohesionless assembly of fibers into a yarn. We show that this transition is continuous but very sharp due to a giant amplification of frictional forces which scales as expθ^{2}, where θ is the twist angle. We demonstrate that this transition is controlled solely by a nondimensional number H involving twist, friction coefficient, and geometric lengths. A critical value of this number H_{c}≃30 can be linked to a locking of the fibers together as the tensile strength is reached. This critical value imposes that yarns must be very slender structures with a given pitch. It also induces the existence of an optimal yarn radius. Predictions of our theory are successfully compared to yarns made from natural cotton fibers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Seguin
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, FAST, 91405, Orsay, France
| | - Jérôme Crassous
- Université Rennes, CNRS, IPR (Institut de Physique de Rennes)-UMR 6251, F-35000 Rennes, France
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6
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Taub R, Salez T, Alarcòn H, Raphaël É, Poulard C, Restagno F. Nonlinear amplification of adhesion forces in interleaved books. THE EUROPEAN PHYSICAL JOURNAL. E, SOFT MATTER 2021; 44:71. [PMID: 34047866 DOI: 10.1140/epje/s10189-021-00068-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
It is nearly impossible to separate two interleaved phonebooks by pulling their spines. The very slight force exerted by the outer sheets of the assembly is amplified as the exponential of the square of the number of sheets, meaning that even a small number of sheets can create a highly resistant system. We present a systematic and detailed study of the influences of the normal external force and the geometrical parameters of the booklets on the assembly strength. We conclude that the paper-paper adhesion force between the two outer sheets, on the order of a few [Formula: see text], is the one amplified by the interleaved-book system. The two-phonebook experiment-which has attracted the attention of students and the non-scientific public all around the world as an outstanding demonstration of the strength of friction-appears to also be a spectacular macroscopic manifestation of the microscopic coupling of friction and adhesion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphaelle Taub
- Laboratoire de physique des solides, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, Orsay, France
| | - Thomas Salez
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, LOMA, UMR 5798, 33405, Talence, France
- Global Station for Soft Matter, Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-0808, Japan
| | - Hector Alarcòn
- Instituto de Ciencias de la Ingeniería, Universidad de O'Higgins, Rancagua, Chile
| | - Élie Raphaël
- UMR CNRS 7083 Gulliver, ESPCI Paris, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Christophe Poulard
- Laboratoire de physique des solides, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, Orsay, France.
| | - Frédéric Restagno
- Laboratoire de physique des solides, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, Orsay, France
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Grandgeorge P, Baek C, Singh H, Johanns P, Sano TG, Flynn A, Maddocks JH, Reis PM. Mechanics of two filaments in tight orthogonal contact. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2021684118. [PMID: 33876761 PMCID: PMC8054001 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2021684118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Networks of flexible filaments often involve regions of tight contact. Predictively understanding the equilibrium configurations of these systems is challenging due to intricate couplings between topology, geometry, large nonlinear deformations, and friction. Here, we perform an in-depth study of a simple, yet canonical, problem that captures the essence of contact between filaments. In the orthogonal clasp, two filaments are brought into contact, with each centerline lying in one of a pair of orthogonal planes. Our data from X-ray tomography (μCT) and mechanical testing experiments are in excellent agreement with finite element method (FEM) simulations. Despite the apparent simplicity of the physical system, the data exhibit strikingly unintuitive behavior, even when the contact is frictionless. Specifically, we observe a curvilinear diamond-shaped ridge in the contact-pressure field between the two filaments, sometimes with an inner gap. When a relative displacement is imposed between the filaments, friction is activated, and a highly asymmetric pressure field develops. These findings contrast to the classic capstan analysis of a single filament wrapped around a rigid body. Both the μCT and FEM data indicate that the cross-sections of the filaments can deform significantly. Nonetheless, an idealized geometrical theory assuming undeformable tube cross-sections and neglecting elasticity rationalizes our observations qualitatively and highlights the central role of the small, but nonzero, tube radius of the filaments. We believe that our orthogonal clasp analysis provides a building block for future modeling efforts in frictional contact mechanics of more complex filamentary structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Grandgeorge
- Flexible Structures Laboratory, Institute of Mechanical Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
| | - Changyeob Baek
- Flexible Structures Laboratory, Institute of Mechanical Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139
| | - Harmeet Singh
- Laboratory for Computation and Visualization in Mathematics and Mechanics, Institute of Mathematics, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
| | - Paul Johanns
- Flexible Structures Laboratory, Institute of Mechanical Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
| | - Tomohiko G Sano
- Flexible Structures Laboratory, Institute of Mechanical Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
| | - Alastair Flynn
- Laboratory for Computation and Visualization in Mathematics and Mechanics, Institute of Mathematics, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
| | - John H Maddocks
- Laboratory for Computation and Visualization in Mathematics and Mechanics, Institute of Mathematics, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
| | - Pedro M Reis
- Flexible Structures Laboratory, Institute of Mechanical Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne 1015, Switzerland;
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Robinson JF, Rios de Anda I, Moore FJ, Reid JP, Sear RP, Royall CP. Efficacy of face coverings in reducing transmission of COVID-19: Calculations based on models of droplet capture. PHYSICS OF FLUIDS (WOODBURY, N.Y. : 1994) 2021; 33:043112. [PMID: 33953528 PMCID: PMC8086642 DOI: 10.1063/5.0047622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
In the COVID-19 pandemic, among the more controversial issues is the use of masks and face coverings. Much of the concern boils down to the question-just how effective are face coverings? One means to address this question is to review our understanding of the physical mechanisms by which masks and coverings operate-steric interception, inertial impaction, diffusion, and electrostatic capture. We enquire as to what extent these can be used to predict the efficacy of coverings. We combine the predictions of the models of these mechanisms which exist in the filtration literature and compare the predictions with recent experiments and lattice Boltzmann simulations, and find reasonable agreement with the former and good agreement with the latter. Building on these results, we explore the parameter space for woven cotton fabrics to show that three-layered cloth masks can be constructed with comparable filtration performance to surgical masks under ideal conditions. Reusable cloth masks thus present an environmentally friendly alternative to surgical masks so long as the face seal is adequate enough to minimize leakage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua F. Robinson
- H. H. Wills Physics Laboratory, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TL, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Jonathan P. Reid
- School of Chemistry, Cantock's Close, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
| | - Richard P. Sear
- Department of Physics, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, United Kingdom
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Poon WCK, Brown AT, Direito SOL, Hodgson DJM, Le Nagard L, Lips A, MacPhee CE, Marenduzzo D, Royer JR, Silva AF, Thijssen JHJ, Titmuss S. Soft matter science and the COVID-19 pandemic. SOFT MATTER 2020; 16:8310-8324. [PMID: 32909024 DOI: 10.1039/d0sm01223h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Much of the science underpinning the global response to the COVID-19 pandemic lies in the soft matter domain. Coronaviruses are composite particles with a core of nucleic acids complexed to proteins surrounded by a protein-studded lipid bilayer shell. A dominant route for transmission is via air-borne aerosols and droplets. Viral interaction with polymeric body fluids, particularly mucus, and cell membranes controls their infectivity, while their interaction with skin and artificial surfaces underpins cleaning and disinfection and the efficacy of masks and other personal protective equipment. The global response to COVID-19 has highlighted gaps in the soft matter knowledge base. We survey these gaps, especially as pertaining to the transmission of the disease, and suggest questions that can (and need to) be tackled, both in response to COVID-19 and to better prepare for future viral pandemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wilson C K Poon
- Edinburgh Complex Fluids Partnership (ECFP), SUPA and School of Physics & Astronomy, The University of Edinburgh, Peter Guthrie Tait Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, UK.
| | - Aidan T Brown
- Edinburgh Complex Fluids Partnership (ECFP), SUPA and School of Physics & Astronomy, The University of Edinburgh, Peter Guthrie Tait Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, UK.
| | - Susana O L Direito
- Edinburgh Complex Fluids Partnership (ECFP), SUPA and School of Physics & Astronomy, The University of Edinburgh, Peter Guthrie Tait Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, UK.
| | - Daniel J M Hodgson
- Edinburgh Complex Fluids Partnership (ECFP), SUPA and School of Physics & Astronomy, The University of Edinburgh, Peter Guthrie Tait Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, UK.
| | - Lucas Le Nagard
- Edinburgh Complex Fluids Partnership (ECFP), SUPA and School of Physics & Astronomy, The University of Edinburgh, Peter Guthrie Tait Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, UK.
| | - Alex Lips
- Edinburgh Complex Fluids Partnership (ECFP), SUPA and School of Physics & Astronomy, The University of Edinburgh, Peter Guthrie Tait Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, UK.
| | - Cait E MacPhee
- Edinburgh Complex Fluids Partnership (ECFP), SUPA and School of Physics & Astronomy, The University of Edinburgh, Peter Guthrie Tait Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, UK.
| | - Davide Marenduzzo
- Edinburgh Complex Fluids Partnership (ECFP), SUPA and School of Physics & Astronomy, The University of Edinburgh, Peter Guthrie Tait Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, UK.
| | - John R Royer
- Edinburgh Complex Fluids Partnership (ECFP), SUPA and School of Physics & Astronomy, The University of Edinburgh, Peter Guthrie Tait Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, UK.
| | - Andreia F Silva
- Edinburgh Complex Fluids Partnership (ECFP), SUPA and School of Physics & Astronomy, The University of Edinburgh, Peter Guthrie Tait Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, UK.
| | - Job H J Thijssen
- Edinburgh Complex Fluids Partnership (ECFP), SUPA and School of Physics & Astronomy, The University of Edinburgh, Peter Guthrie Tait Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, UK.
| | - Simon Titmuss
- Edinburgh Complex Fluids Partnership (ECFP), SUPA and School of Physics & Astronomy, The University of Edinburgh, Peter Guthrie Tait Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, UK.
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10
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Patil VP, Sandt JD, Kolle M, Dunkel J. Topological mechanics of knots and tangles. Science 2020; 367:71-75. [PMID: 31896713 DOI: 10.1126/science.aaz0135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Knots play a fundamental role in the dynamics of biological and physical systems, from DNA to turbulent plasmas, as well as in climbing, weaving, sailing, and surgery. Despite having been studied for centuries, the subtle interplay between topology and mechanics in elastic knots remains poorly understood. Here, we combined optomechanical experiments with theory and simulations to analyze knotted fibers that change their color under mechanical deformations. Exploiting an analogy with long-range ferromagnetic spin systems, we identified simple topological counting rules to predict the relative mechanical stability of knots and tangles, in agreement with simulations and experiments for commonly used climbing and sailing bends. Our results highlight the importance of twist and writhe in unknotting processes, providing guidance for the control of systems with complex entanglements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vishal P Patil
- Department of Mathematics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Joseph D Sandt
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Mathias Kolle
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Jörn Dunkel
- Department of Mathematics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
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Lin S, Wang Z, Chen X, Ren J, Ling S. Ultrastrong and Highly Sensitive Fiber Microactuators Constructed by Force-Reeled Silks. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2020; 7:1902743. [PMID: 32195093 PMCID: PMC7080530 DOI: 10.1002/advs.201902743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2019] [Revised: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Fiber microactuators are interesting in wide variety of emerging fields, including artificial muscles, biosensors, and wearable devices. In the present study, a robust, fast-responsive, and humidity-induced silk fiber microactuator is developed by integrating force-reeling and yarn-spinning techniques. The shape gradient, together with hierarchical rough surface, allows these silk fiber microactuators to respond rapidly to humidity. The silk fiber microactuator can reach maximum rotation speed of 6179.3° s-1 in 4.8 s. Such a response speed (1030 rotations per minute) is comparable with the most advanced microactuators. Moreover, this microactuator generates 2.1 W kg-1 of average actuation power, which is twice higher than fiber actuators constructed by cocoon silks. The actuating powers of silk fiber microactuators can be precisely programmed by controlling the number of fibers used. Lastly, theory predicts the observed performance merits of silk fiber microactuators toward inspiring the rational design of water-induced microactuators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shihui Lin
- School of Physical Science and TechnologyShanghaiTech University393 Middle Huaxia RoadShanghai201210China
| | - Zhen Wang
- School of Physical Science and TechnologyShanghaiTech University393 Middle Huaxia RoadShanghai201210China
| | - Xinyan Chen
- School of Physical Science and TechnologyShanghaiTech University393 Middle Huaxia RoadShanghai201210China
| | - Jing Ren
- School of Physical Science and TechnologyShanghaiTech University393 Middle Huaxia RoadShanghai201210China
| | - Shengjie Ling
- School of Physical Science and TechnologyShanghaiTech University393 Middle Huaxia RoadShanghai201210China
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