Photoelectric effect at ultrahigh intensities

Efficiency evaluation of a lab-scale photoelectric precipitator for particulate matter emission reduction

The importance of studying particulate matter lies in its detrimental impact on human health and the environment. Industrial emissions often carry substantial dust content, necessitating the reduction of their environmental release. This study introduced a laboratory-scale photoelectric precipitator to assess its effectiveness in curbing particle emissions under varying temperature, humidity, and residence time conditions. This device operates in two stages: firstly, it charges particles by exposing copper wire surfaces to ultraviolet rays, generating photoelectrons in the airflow; secondly, it utilizes a positively charged collector surface for absorption and collection. Assessment under different temperature, residence time, and humidity conditions revealed that the system designed for 10 μm diameter particles displayed the highest efficiency. At 150℃, the removal efficiency was 39.55%, rising to 41.34% at 60% humidity and 43.58% with an 18-second residence time. Furthermore, increasing energy consumption from 144 j/l to 720 j/l resulted in a 10.93% efficiency increase, highlighting the correlation between energy input and system efficiency. High particulate matter levels diminish visibility, harm the climate, ecosystems, materials, and contribute to respiratory and cardiovascular ailments. These findings underline the photoelectric precipitator's potential in mitigating particulate matter's adverse effects on health and the environment. However, further research is warranted to optimize system design and explore additional parameters' impact on performance, ensuring its effectiveness in industrial processes to reduce particulate matter emissions.

Experimental Realization of Auger Decay in the Field of a Positive Elementary Charge

Auger electron spectroscopy is an omnipresent experimental tool in many fields of fundamental research and applied science. The determination of the kinetic energies of the Auger electrons yields information about the element emitting the electron and its chemical environment at the time of emission. Here, we present an experimental approach to determine Auger spectra for emitter sites in the vicinity of a positive elementary charge based on electron-electron-electron and electron-electron-photon coincidence spectroscopy. We observe a characteristic redshift of the Auger spectrum caused by the Coulomb interaction with the charged environment. Our results are relevant for the interpretation of Auger spectra of extended systems like large molecules, clusters, liquids, and solids, in particular in high-intensity radiation fields which are nowadays routinely available, e.g., at x-ray free-electron laser facilities. The effect has been widely ignored in the literature so far, and some interpretations of Auger spectra from clusters might need to be revisited.

Response time of an electron inside a molecule to light in strong-field ionization

We study ionization of aligned H2+ in strong elliptically polarized laser fields numerically and analytically. The calculated offset angle in photoelectron momentum distribution is several degrees larger for the molecule than a model atom with similar ionization potential at diverse laser parameters. Using a strong-field model that considers the properties of multi-center and single-center Coulomb potentials, we are able to quantitatively reproduce this angle difference between the molecule and the atom. Further analyses based on this model show that the response time of electron to light which is encoded in the offset angle and is manifested as the time spent in tunneling ionization, is about 15 attoseconds longer for the molecule than the atom. This time difference is further enlarged when increasing the internuclear distance of the molecule.

Multiple-core-hole resonance spectroscopy with ultraintense X-ray pulses

Understanding the interaction of intense, femtosecond X-ray pulses with heavy atoms is crucial for gaining insights into the structure and dynamics of matter. One key aspect of nonlinear light-matter interaction was, so far, not studied systematically at free-electron lasers-its dependence on the photon energy. Here, we use resonant ion spectroscopy to map out the transient electronic structures occurring during the complex charge-up pathways of xenon. Massively hollow atoms featuring up to six simultaneous core holes determine the spectra at specific photon energies and charge states. We also illustrate how different X-ray pulse parameters, which are usually intertwined, can be partially disentangled. The extraction of resonance spectra is facilitated by the possibility of working with a constant number of photons per X-ray pulse at all photon energies and the fact that the ion yields become independent of the peak fluence beyond a saturation point. Our study lays the groundwork for spectroscopic investigations of transient atomic species in exotic, multiple-core-hole states that have not been explored previously.

Deep learning for laser beam imprinting

Methods of ablation imprints in solid targets are widely used to characterize focused X-ray laser beams due to a remarkable dynamic range and resolving power. A detailed description of intense beam profiles is especially important in high-energy-density physics aiming at nonlinear phenomena. Complex interaction experiments require an enormous number of imprints to be created under all desired conditions making the analysis demanding and requiring a huge amount of human work. Here, for the first time, we present ablation imprinting methods assisted by deep learning approaches. Employing a multi-layer convolutional neural network (U-Net) trained on thousands of manually annotated ablation imprints in poly(methyl methacrylate), we characterize a focused beam of beamline FL24/FLASH2 at the Free-electron laser in Hamburg. The performance of the neural network is subject to a thorough benchmark test and comparison with experienced human analysts. Methods presented in this Paper pave the way towards a virtual analyst automatically processing experimental data from start to end.

Differential Measurement of Electron Ejection after Two-Photon Two-Electron Excitation of Helium

We report the measurement of the photoelectron angular distribution of two-photon single-ionization near the 2p^{2} ^{1}D^{e} double-excitation resonance in helium, benchmarking the fundamental nonlinear interaction of two photons with two correlated electrons. This observation is enabled by the unique combination of intense extreme ultraviolet pulses, delivered at the high-repetition-rate free-electron laser in Hamburg (FLASH), ionizing a jet of cryogenically cooled helium atoms in a reaction microscope. The spectral structure of the intense self-amplified spontaneous emission free-electron laser pulses has been resolved on a single-shot level to allow for post selection of pulses, leading to an enhanced spectral resolution, and introducing a new experimental method. The measured angular distribution is directly compared to state-of-the-art theory based on multichannel quantum defect theory and the streamlined R-matrix method. These results and experimental methodology open a promising route for exploring fundamental interactions of few photons with few electrons in general.

Multiple Sequential Ionization of Valence n = 4 Shell of Krypton by Intense Femtosecond XUV Pulses

Sequential photoionization of krypton by intense extreme ultraviolet femtosecond pulses is studied theoretically for the photon energies below the 3d excitation threshold. This regime with energetically forbidden Auger decay is characterized by special features, such as time scaling of the level population. The model is based on the solution of rate equations with photoionization cross sections of krypton in different charge and multiplet states determined using R-matrix calculations. Predictions of the ion yields and photoelectron spectra for various photon fluence are presented and discussed.

Bound-State Electron Dynamics Driven by Near-Resonantly Detuned Intense and Ultrashort Pulsed XUV Fields

We report on numerical results revealing line-shape asymmetry changes of electronic transitions in atoms near-resonantly driven by intense extreme-ultraviolet (XUV) electric fields by monitoring their transient absorption spectrum after transmission through a moderately dense atomic medium. Our numerical model utilizes ultrashort broadband XUV laser pulses varied in their intensity (1014–1015 W/cm2) and detuning nearly out of resonance for a quantitative evaluation of the absorption line-shape asymmetry. It will be shown how transient energy shifts of the bound electronic states can be linked to these asymmetry changes in the case of an ultrashort XUV driving pulse temporally shorter than the lifetime of the resonant excitation, and how the asymmetry can be controlled by the near-resonant detuning of the XUV pulse. In the case of a two-level system, the numerical model is compared to an analytical calculation, which helps to uncover the underlying mechanism for the detuning- and intensity-induced line-shape modification and links it to the generalized Rabi frequency. To further apply the numerical model to recent experimental results of the near-resonant dressing of the 2s2p doubly excited state in helium by an ultrashort XUV free-electron laser pulse we extend the two-level model with an ionization continuum, thereby enabling the description of transmission-type (Fraunhofer-like) transient absorption of a strongly laser-coupled autoionizing state.

THz streak camera performance for single-shot characterization of XUV pulses with complex temporal structures

The THz-field-driven streak camera has proven to be a powerful diagnostic-technique that enables the shot-to-shot characterization of the duration and the arrival time jitter of free electron laser (FEL) pulses. Here we investigate the performance of three computational approaches capable to determine the duration of FEL pulses with complex temporal structures from single-shot measurements of up to three simultaneously recorded spectra. We use numerically simulated FEL pulses in order to validate the accuracy of the pulse length retrieval in average as well as in a single-shot mode. We discuss requirements for the THz field strength in order to achieve reliable results and compare our numerical study with the analysis of experimental data that were obtained at the FEL in Hamburg - FLASH.

Multielectron-Ion Coincidence Spectroscopy of Xe in Extreme Ultraviolet Laser Fields: Nonlinear Multiple Ionization via Double Core-Hole States

Ultrafast multiphoton ionization of Xe in strong extreme ultraviolet free-electron laser (FEL) fields (91 eV, 30 fs, 1.6×10^{12}  W/cm^{2}) has been investigated by multielectron-ion coincidence spectroscopy. The electron spectra recorded in coincidence with Xe^{4+} show characteristic features associated with two-photon absorption to the 4d^{-2} double core-hole (DCH) states and subsequent Auger decay. It is found that the pathway via the DCH states, which has eluded clear identification in previous studies, makes a large contribution to the multiple ionization, despite the long FEL pulse duration compared with the lifetime of the 4d core-hole states.

Young's Double-Slit Interference in a Hydrogen Atom

We demonstrate the possibility of realizing Young's double-slit interference in a hydrogen atom via ab initio simulations. By exposing the hydrogen atom to a high-frequency intensive laser pulse, the bound state distorts into a dichotomic Kramers-Henneberger state whose photoelectron momentum distribution imprints a double-slit interference structure. The dichotomic hydrogen atom presents molecular peculiarities, such as charge-resonance enhanced ionization, electron spin flipping due to the non-Abelian Berry phase. In return, the photoelectron momentum distribution carrying the double-slit interference structure provides unambiguous evidence on the existence of Kramers-Henneberger states, and thus the adiabatic stabilization.

Breakdown of the electric dipole approximation at Cooper minima in direct two-photon ionisation

We predict breakdown of the electric dipole approximation at nonlinear Cooper minimum in direct two-photon K–shell atomic ionisation by circularly polarised light. According to predictions based on the electric dipole approximation, we expect that tuning the incident photon energy to the Cooper minimum in two-photon ionisation results in pure depletion of one spin projection of the initially bound 1s electrons, and hence, leaves the ionised atom in a fully oriented state. We show that by inclusion of electric quadrupole interaction, dramatic drop of orientation purity is obtained. The low degree of the remaining ion orientation provides a direct access to contributions of the electron-photon interaction beyond the electric dipole approximation in the two-photon ionisation of atoms and molecules. The orientation of the photoions can be experimentally detected either directly by a Stern-Gerlach analyzer, or by means of subsequent Kα fluorescence emission, which has the information about the ion orientation imprinted in the polarisation of the emitted photons.

Two-Electron Interference in Strong-Field Ionization of He by a Short Intense Extreme Ultraviolet Laser Pulse

Double ionization of helium by a single intense (above 10^{18}  W/cm^{2}) linearly polarized extreme ultraviolet laser pulse is studied by numerically solving the full-dimensional time-dependent Schrödinger equation. For the laser intensities well beyond the perturbative limit, novel gridlike interference fringes are found in the correlated energy spectrum of the two photoelectrons. The interference can be traced to the multitude of two-electron wave packets emitted at different ionization times. A semianalytical model for the dressed two-photon double ionization is shown to qualitatively account for the interference patterns in the joint energy spectrum. Similar signatures of interferences between transient induced time-delayed ionization bursts are expected for other atomic and molecular multielectron systems.

Nonlinear Coherence Effects in Transient-Absorption Ion Spectroscopy with Stochastic Extreme-Ultraviolet Free-Electron Laser Pulses

We demonstrate time-resolved nonlinear extreme-ultraviolet absorption spectroscopy on multiply charged ions, here applied to the doubly charged neon ion, driven by a phase-locked sequence of two intense free-electron laser pulses. Absorption signatures of resonance lines due to 2p-3d bound-bound transitions between the spin-orbit multiplets ^{3}P_{0,1,2} and ^{3}D_{1,2,3} of the transiently produced doubly charged Ne^{2+} ion are revealed, with time-dependent spectral changes over a time-delay range of (2.4±0.3)  fs. Furthermore, we observe 10-meV-scale spectral shifts of these resonances owing to the ac Stark effect. We use a time-dependent quantum model to explain the observations by an enhanced coupling of the ionic quantum states with the partially coherent free-electron laser radiation when the phase-locked pump and probe pulses precisely overlap in time.

Reaction microscope endstation at FLASH2

A reaction microscope dedicated to multi-particle coincidence spectroscopy on gas-phase samples is installed at beamline FL26 of the free-electron laser FLASH2 in Hamburg. The main goals of the instrument are to follow the dynamics of atoms, molecules and small clusters on their natural time-scale and to study non-linear light-matter interaction with such systems. To this end, the reaction microscope is combined with an in-line extreme-ultraviolet (XUV) split-delay and focusing optics, which allows time-resolved XUV-XUV pump-probe spectroscopy to be performed.

Symmetry breakdown of electron emission in extreme ultraviolet photoionization of argon

Short wavelength free-electron lasers (FELs), providing pulses of ultrahigh photon intensity, have revolutionized spectroscopy on ionic targets. Their exceptional photon flux enables multiple photon absorptions within a single femtosecond pulse, which in turn allows for deep insights into the photoionization process itself as well as into evolving ionic states of a target. Here we employ ultraintense pulses from the FEL FERMI to spectroscopically investigate the sequential emission of electrons from gaseous, atomic argon in the neutral as well as the ionic ground state. A pronounced forward-backward symmetry breaking of the angularly resolved emission patterns with respect to the light propagation direction is experimentally observed and theoretically explained for the region of the Cooper minimum, where the asymmetry of electron emission is strongly enhanced. These findings aim to originate a better understanding of the fundamentals of photon momentum transfer in ionic matter.

XUV double-pulses with femtosecond to 650 ps separation from a multilayer-mirror-based split-and-delay unit at FLASH

Extreme ultraviolet (XUV) and X-ray free-electron lasers enable new scientific opportunities. Their ultra-intense coherent femtosecond pulses give unprecedented access to the structure of undepositable nanoscale objects and to transient states of highly excited matter. In order to probe the ultrafast complex light-induced dynamics on the relevant time scales, the multi-purpose end-station CAMP at the free-electron laser FLASH has been complemented by the novel multilayer-mirror-based split-and-delay unit DESC (DElay Stage for CAMP) for time-resolved experiments. XUV double-pulses with delays adjustable from zero femtoseconds up to 650 picoseconds are generated by reflecting under near-normal incidence, exceeding the time range accessible with existing XUV split-and-delay units. Procedures to establish temporal and spatial overlap of the two pulses in CAMP are presented, with emphasis on the optimization of the spatial overlap at long time-delays via time-dependent features, for example in ion spectra of atomic clusters.

CAMP@FLASH: an end-station for imaging, electron- and ion-spectroscopy, and pump-probe experiments at the FLASH free-electron laser

The non-monochromatic beamline BL1 at the FLASH free-electron laser facility at DESY was upgraded with new transport and focusing optics, and a new permanent end-station, CAMP, was installed. This multi-purpose instrument is optimized for electron- and ion-spectroscopy, imaging and pump-probe experiments at free-electron lasers. It can be equipped with various electron- and ion-spectrometers, along with large-area single-photon-counting pnCCD X-ray detectors, thus enabling a wide range of experiments from atomic, molecular, and cluster physics to material and energy science, chemistry and biology. Here, an overview of the layout, the beam transport and focusing capabilities, and the experimental possibilities of this new end-station are presented, as well as results from its commissioning.

Dynamic interference as signature of atomic stabilization

We study the ionization of atoms by very intense linearly polarized pulse with moderately high frequency by numerically solving the time-dependent Schrödinger equation (TDSE). In this regime, the photon energy exceeds the ionization potential allowing for one-photon ionization which is, however, strongly influenced by strong nonlinear photon-atom interactions. We find that the onset of atomic stabilization can be monitored by the appearance of a dynamic interference pattern in the photoelectron spectrum.

Short-wavelength free-electron laser sources and science: a review

This review is focused on free-electron lasers (FELs) in the hard to soft x-ray regime. The aim is to provide newcomers to the area with insights into: the basic physics of FELs, the qualities of the radiation they produce, the challenges of transmitting that radiation to end users and the diversity of current scientific applications. Initial consideration is given to FEL theory in order to provide the foundation for discussion of FEL output properties and the technical challenges of short-wavelength FELs. This is followed by an overview of existing x-ray FEL facilities, future facilities and FEL frontiers. To provide a context for information in the above sections, a detailed comparison of the photon pulse characteristics of FEL sources with those of other sources of high brightness x-rays is made. A brief summary of FEL beamline design and photon diagnostics then precedes an overview of FEL scientific applications. Recent highlights are covered in sections on structural biology, atomic and molecular physics, photochemistry, non-linear spectroscopy, shock physics, solid density plasmas. A short industrial perspective is also included to emphasise potential in this area.

Correlated electronic decay in expanding clusters triggered by intense XUV pulses from a Free-Electron-Laser

Irradiation of nanoscale clusters and large molecules with intense laser pulses transforms them into highly-excited non- equilibrium states. The dynamics of intense laser-cluster interaction is encoded in electron kinetic energy spectra, which contain signatures of direct photoelectron emission as well as emission of thermalized nanoplasma electrons. In this work we report on a so far not observed spectrally narrow bound state signature in the electron kinetic energy spectra from mixed Xe core - Ar shell clusters ionized by intense extreme-ultraviolet (XUV) pulses from a free-electron-laser. This signature is attributed to the correlated electronic decay (CED) process, in which an excited atom relaxes and the excess energy is used to ionize the same or another excited atom or a nanoplasma electron. By applying the terahertz field streaking principle we demonstrate that CED-electrons are emitted at least a few picoseconds after the ionizing XUV pulse has ended. Following the recent finding of CED in clusters ionized by intense near-infrared laser pulses, our observation of CED in the XUV range suggests that this process is of general relevance for the relaxation dynamics in laser produced nanoplasmas.

Recombination-Enhanced Surface Expansion of Clusters in Intense Soft X-Ray Laser Pulses

We studied the nanoplasma formation and explosion dynamics of single large xenon clusters in ultrashort, intense x-ray free-electron laser pulses via ion spectroscopy. The simultaneous measurement of single-shot diffraction images enabled a single-cluster analysis that is free from any averaging over the cluster size and laser intensity distributions. The measured charge state-resolved ion energy spectra show narrow distributions with peak positions that scale linearly with final ion charge state. These two distinct signatures are attributed to highly efficient recombination that eventually leads to the dominant formation of neutral atoms in the cluster. The measured mean ion energies exceed the value expected without recombination by more than an order of magnitude, indicating that the energy release resulting from electron-ion recombination constitutes a previously unnoticed nanoplasma heating process. This conclusion is supported by results from semiclassical molecular dynamics simulations.

Study of double core hole excitations in molecules by X-ray double-quantum-coherence signals: a multi-configuration simulation

The multi-configurational self-consistent field method is employed to simulate the two-dimensional all-X-ray double-quantum-coherence (XDQC) spectroscopy, a four-wave mixing signal that provides direct signatures of double core hole (DCH) states. The valence electronic structure is probed by capturing the correlation between the single (SCH) and double core hole states. The state-averaged restricted-active-space self-consistent field (SA-RASSCF) approach is used which can treat the valence, SCH, and DCH states at the same theoretical level, and applies to all types of DCHs (located on one or two atoms, K-edge or L-edge), with both accuracy and efficiency. Orbital relaxation introduced by the core hole(s) and the static electron correlation is properly accounted for. The XDQC process can take place via different intermediate DCH state channels by tuning the pulse frequencies. We simulate the XDQC signals for the three isomers of aminophenol at 8 pulse frequency configurations, covering all DCH pathways involving the N1s and O1s core hole (N1sN1s, O1sO1s and N1sO1s), which reveal different patterns of valence excitations.

Spectrometer for shot-to-shot photon energy characterization in the multi-bunch mode of the free electron laser at Hamburg

The setup and first results from commissioning of a fast online photon energy spectrometer for the vacuum ultraviolet free electron laser at Hamburg (FLASH) at DESY are presented. With the use of the latest advances in detector development, the presented spectrometer reaches readout frequencies up to 1 MHz. In this paper, we demonstrate the ability to record online photon energy spectra on a shot-to-shot base in the multi-bunch mode of FLASH. Clearly resolved shifts in the mean wavelength over the pulse train as well as shot-to-shot wavelength fluctuations arising from the statistical nature of the photon generating self-amplified spontaneous emission process have been observed. In addition to an online tool for beam calibration and photon diagnostics, the spectrometer enables the determination and selection of spectral data taken with a transparent experiment up front over the photon energy of every shot. This leads to higher spectral resolutions without the loss of efficiency or photon flux by using single-bunch mode or monochromators.

Characterization of Molecular Breakup by Very Intense Femtosecond XUV Laser Pulses

We study the breakup of H2+ exposed to superintense, femtosecond laser pulses with frequencies greater than that corresponding to the ionization potential. By solving the time-dependent Schrödinger equation in an extensive field parameter range, it is revealed that highly nonresonant dissociation channels can dominate over ionization. By considering field-dressed Born-Oppenheimer potential energy curves in the reference frame following a free electron in the field, we propose a simple physical model that characterizes this dissociation mechanism. The model is used to predict control of vibrational excitation, magnitude of the dissociation yields, and nuclear kinetic energy release spectra. Finally, the joint energy spectrum for the ionization process illustrates the energy sharing between the electron and the nuclei and the correlation between ionization and dissociation processes.

The Low Density Matter (LDM) beamline at FERMI: optical layout and first commissioning

The Low Density Matter (LDM) beamline has been built as part of the FERMI free-electron laser (FEL) facility to serve the atomic, molecular and cluster physics community. After the commissioning phase, it received the first external users at the end of 2012. The design and characterization of the LDM photon transport system is described, detailing the optical components of the beamline.

Sensitivity of nonlinear photoionization to resonance substructure in collective excitation

Collective behaviour is a characteristic feature in many-body systems, important for developments in fields such as magnetism, superconductivity, photonics and electronics. Recently, there has been increasing interest in the optically nonlinear response of collective excitations. Here we demonstrate how the nonlinear interaction of a many-body system with intense XUV radiation can be used as an effective probe for characterizing otherwise unresolved features of its collective response. Resonant photoionization of atomic xenon was chosen as a case study. The excellent agreement between experiment and theory strongly supports the prediction that two distinct poles underlie the giant dipole resonance. Our results pave the way towards a deeper understanding of collective behaviour in atoms, molecules and solid-state systems using nonlinear spectroscopic techniques enabled by modern short-wavelength light sources.

Electrons in atoms exhibit many-body collective behaviours that can be studied by highbrightness X-rays from FELs. Here, the authors examine two-photon above threshold ionization of xenon and find that nonlinearities in the response uncover that more than one state underpins the 4d giant resonance.

The potential of future light sources to explore the structure and function of matter

Structural studies in general, and crystallography in particular, have benefited and still do benefit dramatically from the use of synchrotron radiation. Low-emittance storage rings of the third generation provide focused beams down to the micrometre range that are sufficiently intense for the investigation of weakly scattering crystals down to the size of several micrometres. Even though the coherent fraction of these sources is below 1%, a number of new imaging techniques have been developed to exploit the partially coherent radiation. However, many techniques in nanoscience are limited by this rather small coherent fraction. On the one hand, this restriction limits the ability to study the structure and dynamics of non-crystalline materials by methods that depend on the coherence properties of the beam, like coherent diffractive imaging and X-ray correlation spectroscopy. On the other hand, the flux in an ultra-small diffraction-limited focus is limited as well for the same reason. Meanwhile, new storage rings with more advanced lattice designs are under construction or under consideration, which will have significantly smaller emittances. These sources are targeted towards the diffraction limit in the X-ray regime and will provide roughly one to two orders of magnitude higher spectral brightness and coherence. They will be especially suited to experiments exploiting the coherence properties of the beams and to ultra-small focal spot sizes in the regime of several nanometres. Although the length of individual X-ray pulses at a storage-ring source is of the order of 100 ps, which is sufficiently short to track structural changes of larger groups, faster processes as they occur during vision or photosynthesis, for example, are not accessible in all details under these conditions. Linear accelerator (linac) driven free-electron laser (FEL) sources with extremely short and intense pulses of very high coherence circumvent some of the limitations of present-day storage-ring sources. It has been demonstrated that their individual pulses are short enough to outrun radiation damage for single-pulse exposures. These ultra-short pulses also enable time-resolved studies 1000 times faster than at standard storage-ring sources. Developments are ongoing at various places for a totally new type of X-ray source combining a linac with a storage ring. These energy-recovery linacs promise to provide pulses almost as short as a FEL, with brilliances and multi-user capabilities comparable with a diffraction-limited storage ring. Altogether, these new X-ray source developments will provide smaller and more intense X-ray beams with a considerably higher coherent fraction, enabling a broad spectrum of new techniques for studying the structure of crystalline and non-crystalline states of matter at atomic length scales. In addition, the short X-ray pulses of FELs will enable the study of fast atomic dynamics and non-equilibrium states of matter.

The 3D-architecture of individual free silver nanoparticles captured by X-ray scattering

The diversity of nanoparticle shapes generated by condensation from gaseous matter reflects the fundamental competition between thermodynamic equilibration and the persistence of metastable configurations during growth. In the kinetically limited regime, intermediate geometries that are favoured only in early formation stages can be imprinted in the finally observed ensemble of differently structured specimens. Here we demonstrate that single-shot wide-angle scattering of femtosecond soft X-ray free-electron laser pulses allows three-dimensional characterization of the resulting metastable nanoparticle structures. For individual free silver particles, which can be considered frozen in space for the duration of photon exposure, both shape and orientation are uncovered from measured scattering images. We identify regular shapes, including species with fivefold symmetry and surprisingly large aspect ratio up to particle radii of the order of 100 nm. Our approach includes scattering effects beyond Born’s approximation and is remarkably efficient—opening up new routes in ultrafast nanophysics and free-electron laser science.

The occurrence of thermodynamically metastable nanoparticles determines the particle growth in nature, but capturing them is experimentally challenging. Barke et al. identify the three-dimensional shape of metastable silver nanoparticles in gas phase, characterized by X-ray free-electron laser.

Electron rearrangement dynamics in dissociating I(2)^(n+) molecules accessed by extreme ultraviolet pump-probe experiments

The charge rearrangement in dissociating I_{2}^{n+} molecules is measured as a function of the internuclear distance R using extreme ultraviolet pulses delivered by the free-electron laser in Hamburg. Within an extreme ultraviolet pump-probe scheme, the first pulse initiates dissociation by multiply ionizing I_{2}, and the delayed probe pulse further ionizes one of the two fragments at a given time, thus triggering charge rearrangement at a well-defined R. The electron transfer between the fragments is monitored by analyzing the delay-dependent ion kinetic energies and charge states. The experimental results are in very good agreement with predictions of the classical over-the-barrier model demonstrating its validity in a thus far unexplored quasimolecular regime relevant for free-electron laser, plasma, and chemistry applications.

Rare-gas clusters in intense extreme-ultraviolet pulses from a high-order harmonic source

We report evidence for two previously unidentified effects in the ionization of rare-gas clusters by intense extreme-ultraviolet pulses. First, electron spectra indicate multistep photoemission with increasing isotropy for larger clusters due to electron-atom collisions. Second, very slow (meV) electrons are interpreted as the first experimental evidence for Rydberg-like atomic state formation in the nanoplasma expansion. Only small fractions of Xe2+ ions were found, in sharp contrast to previous results recorded under comparable conditions [Murphy et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 101, 203401 (2008).

Novel collective autoionization process observed in electron spectra of He clusters

The ionization dynamics of He nanodroplets irradiated with intense femtosecond extreme ultraviolet pulses of up to 1013  W/cm2 power density have been investigated by photoelectron spectroscopy. Helium droplets were resonantly excited to atomiclike 2p states with a photon energy of 21.4 eV, below the ionization potential (Ip), and directly into the ionization continuum with 42.8 eV photons. While electron emission following direct ionization above Ip is well explained within a model based on a sequence of direct electron emission events, the resonant excitation provides evidence of a new, collective ionization mechanism involving many excited atomiclike 2p states. With increasing power density the direct photoline due to an interatomic Coulombic decay disappears. It indicates that ionization occurs due to energy exchange between at least three excited atoms proceeding on a femtosecond time scale. In agreement with recent theoretical work the novel ionization process is very efficient and it is expected to be important for many other systems.

Spatial and temporal coherence properties of single free-electron laser pulses

The experimental characterization of the spatial and temporal coherence properties of the free-electron laser in Hamburg (FLASH) at a wavelength of 8.0 nm is presented. Double pinhole diffraction patterns of single femtosecond pulses focused to a size of about 10×10 μm(2) were measured. A transverse coherence length of 6.2 ± 0.9 μm in the horizontal and 8.7 ± 1.0 μm in the vertical direction was determined from the most coherent pulses. Using a split and delay unit the coherence time of the pulses produced in the same operation conditions of FLASH was measured to be 1.75 ± 0.01 fs. From our experiment we estimated the degeneracy parameter of the FLASH beam to be on the order of 10(10) to 10(11), which exceeds the values of this parameter at any other source in the same energy range by many orders of magnitude.

Dynamic interference of photoelectrons produced by high-frequency laser pulses

The ionization of an atom by a high-frequency intense laser pulse, where the energy of a single photon is sufficient to ionize the system, is investigated from first principles. It is shown that as a consequence of an ac Stark effect in the continuum, the energy of the photoelectron follows the envelope of the laser pulse. This is demonstrated to result in strong dynamic interference of the photoelectrons of the same kinetic energy emitted at different times. Numerically exact computations on the hydrogen atom demonstrate that the dynamic interference spectacularly modifies the photoionization process and is prominently manifested in the photoelectron spectrum by the appearance of a distinct multipeak pattern. The general theory is well approximated by explicit analytical expressions that allow for a transparent understanding of the discovered phenomena and for making predictions on the dependence of the measured spectrum on the pulse.

Ultrafast x-ray scattering of xenon nanoparticles: imaging transient states of matter

Femtosecond x-ray laser flashes with power densities of up to 10(14) W/cm(2) at 13.7 nm wavelength were scattered by single xenon clusters in the gas phase. Similar to light scattering from atmospheric microparticles, the x-ray diffraction patterns carry information about the optical constants of the objects. However, the high flux of the x-ray laser induces severe transient changes of the electronic configuration, resulting in a tenfold increase of absorption in the developing nanoplasma. The modification in opaqueness can be correlated to strong atomic charging of the particle leading to excitation of Xe(4+). It is shown that single-shot single-particle scattering on femtosecond time scales yields insight into ultrafast processes in highly excited systems where conventional spectroscopy techniques are inherently blind.

Enhanced nonlinear double excitation of He in intense extreme ultraviolet laser fields

Nonlinear, three-photon double excitation of He in intense extreme ultraviolet free-electron laser fields (∼24.1  eV, ∼5  TW/cm2) is presented. Resonances to the doubly excited states converging to the He+ N=3 level are revealed by the shot-by-shot photoelectron spectroscopy and identified by theoretical calculations based on the time-dependent Schrödinger equation for the two-electron atom under a laser field. It is shown that the three-photon double excitation is enhanced by intermediate Rydberg states below the first ionization threshold, giving a greater contribution to the photoionization yields than the two-photon process by more than 1 order of magnitude.

Unveiling and driving hidden resonances with high-fluence, high-intensity x-ray pulses

We show that high fluence, high-intensity x-ray pulses from the world's first hard x-ray free-electron laser produce nonlinear phenomena that differ dramatically from the linear x-ray-matter interaction processes that are encountered at synchrotron x-ray sources. We use intense x-ray pulses of sub-10-fs duration to first reveal and subsequently drive the 1s↔2p resonance in singly ionized neon. This photon-driven cycling of an inner-shell electron modifies the Auger decay process, as evidenced by line shape modification. Our work demonstrates the propensity of high-fluence, femtosecond x-ray pulses to alter the target within a single pulse, i.e., to unveil hidden resonances, by cracking open inner shells energetically inaccessible via single-photon absorption, and to consequently trigger damaging electron cascades at unexpectedly low photon energies.

Nonlinear atomic response to intense ultrashort x rays

The nonlinear absorption mechanisms of neon atoms to intense, femtosecond kilovolt x rays are investigated. The production of Ne(9+) is observed at x-ray frequencies below the Ne(8+), 1s(2) absorption edge and demonstrates a clear quadratic dependence on fluence. Theoretical analysis shows that the production is a combination of the two-photon ionization of Ne(8+) ground state and a high-order sequential process involving single-photon production and ionization of transient excited states on a time scale faster than the Auger decay. We find that the nonlinear direct two-photon ionization cross section is orders of magnitude higher than expected from previous calculations.

Saturated ablation in metal hydrides and acceleration of protons and deuterons to keV energies with a soft-x-ray laser

Studies of materials under extreme conditions have relevance to a broad area of research, including planetary physics, fusion research, materials science, and structural biology with x-ray lasers. We study such extreme conditions and experimentally probe the interaction between ultrashort soft x-ray pulses and solid targets (metals and their deuterides) at the FLASH free-electron laser where power densities exceeding 10(17) W/cm(2) were reached. Time-of-flight ion spectrometry and crater analysis were used to characterize the interaction. The results show the onset of saturation in the ablation process at power densities above 10(16) W/cm(2). This effect can be linked to a transiently induced x-ray transparency in the solid by the femtosecond x-ray pulse at high power densities. The measured kinetic energies of protons and deuterons ejected from the surface reach several keV and concur with predictions from plasma-expansion models. Simulations of the interactions were performed with a nonlocal thermodynamic equilibrium code with radiation transfer. These calculations return critical depths similar to the observed crater depths and capture the transient surface transparency at higher power densities.

Multiphoton double ionization of Ar in intense extreme ultraviolet laser fields studied by shot-by-shot photoelectron spectroscopy

Photoelectron spectroscopy has been performed to study the multiphoton double ionization of Ar in an intense extreme ultraviolet laser field (hν ∼ 21  eV, ∼ 5  TW/cm²), by using a free electron laser (FEL). Three distinct peaks identified in the observed photoelectron spectra clearly show that the double ionization proceeds sequentially via the formation of Ar(+): Ar+hν→Ar (+) + e⁻ and Ar²(+) + 2hν→Ar(+) + e⁻. Shot-by-shot recording of the photoelectron spectra allows simultaneous monitoring of FEL spectrum and the multiphoton process for each FEL pulse, revealing that the two-photon ionization from Ar(+) is significantly enhanced by intermediate resonances in Ar(+).

Femtosecond electronic response of atoms to ultra-intense X-rays

An era of exploring the interactions of high-intensity, hard X-rays with matter has begun with the start-up of a hard-X-ray free-electron laser, the Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS). Understanding how electrons in matter respond to ultra-intense X-ray radiation is essential for all applications. Here we reveal the nature of the electronic response in a free atom to unprecedented high-intensity, short-wavelength, high-fluence radiation (respectively 10(18) W cm(-2), 1.5-0.6 nm, approximately 10(5) X-ray photons per A(2)). At this fluence, the neon target inevitably changes during the course of a single femtosecond-duration X-ray pulse-by sequentially ejecting electrons-to produce fully-stripped neon through absorption of six photons. Rapid photoejection of inner-shell electrons produces 'hollow' atoms and an intensity-induced X-ray transparency. Such transparency, due to the presence of inner-shell vacancies, can be induced in all atomic, molecular and condensed matter systems at high intensity. Quantitative comparison with theory allows us to extract LCLS fluence and pulse duration. Our successful modelling of X-ray/atom interactions using a straightforward rate equation approach augurs favourably for extension to complex systems.

Two-photon inner-shell ionization in the extreme ultraviolet

We have observed the simultaneous inner-shell absorption of two extreme-ultraviolet photons by a Xe atom in an experiment performed at the short-wavelength free electron laser facility FLASH. Photoelectron spectroscopy permitted us to unambiguously identify a feature resulting from the ionization of a single electron of the 4d subshell of Xe by two photons each of energy (93±1)  eV. The feature's intensity has a quadratic dependence on the pulse energy. The results are discussed and interpreted within the framework of recent results of ion spectroscopy experiments of Xe obtained at ultrahigh irradiance in the extreme-ultraviolet regime.

Two-photon excitation and relaxation of the 3d-4d resonance in atomic Kr

Two-photon excitation of a single-photon forbidden Auger resonance has been observed and investigated using the intense extreme ultraviolet radiation from the free electron laser in Hamburg. At the wavelength 26.9 nm (46 eV) two photons promoted a 3d core electron to the outer 4d shell. The subsequent Auger decay, as well as several nonlinear above threshold ionization processes, were studied by electron spectroscopy. The experimental data are in excellent agreement with theoretical predictions and analysis of the underlying multiphoton processes.

Stabilization of helium in intense xuv laser fields

We investigate the impact of electron-electron correlation on the ionization dynamics of helium in intense, high-frequency laser fields by solving the time-dependent Schrödinger equation from first principles. Although we observe a decrease in the total ionization yield at high field strengths, the hallmark of atomic stabilization, the repulsion between the electrons has a detrimental effect on the degree of stabilization, in particular for short pulses. Investigation of the ion channel yields reveals that the double ionization process is less prone to two-electron effects, and consequently exhibits the most distinct signature of stabilization. We also find that commonly used one-dimensional models tend to overestimate the effect of correlation.

Slow electrons generated by intense high-frequency laser pulses

A very slow electron is shown to emerge when an intense high-frequency laser pulse is applied to a hydrogen negative ion. This counterintuitive effect cannot be accounted for by multiphoton or tunneling ionization mechanisms. We explore the effect and show that in the high-frequency regime the atomic electron is promoted to the continuum via a nonadiabatic transition caused by slow deformation of the dressed potential that follows a variation of the envelope of the laser pulse. This is a general mechanism, and a slow electron peak should always appear in the photoelectron spectrum when an atom is irradiated by a high-frequency pulse of finite length.

Extreme ultraviolet laser excites atomic giant resonance

Exceptional behavior of light-matter interaction in the extreme ultraviolet is demonstrated. The photoionization of different rare gases was compared at the free-electron laser in Hamburg, FLASH, by applying ion spectroscopy at the wavelength of 13.7 nm and irradiance levels of thousands of terawatts per square centimeter. In the case of xenon, the degree of nonlinear photoionization was found to be significantly higher than for neon, argon, and krypton. This target specific behavior cannot be explained by the standard theories developed for optical strong-field phenomena. We suspect that the collective giant 4d resonance of xenon is the driving force behind the effect that arises in this spectral range.

Theory of multiphoton multielectron ionization of xenon under strong 93-eV radiation

We present a theoretical interpretation of recent experimental results on multiphoton multiple ionization of xenon by soft-x-ray radiation of photon energy approximately 93 eV and intensity up to 10(16) W/cm2 [A. A Sorokin, Phys. Rev. Lett. 99, 213002 (2007)]. The data are interpreted within multiphoton perturbation theory, taking into account the spatiotemporal distribution of the radiation. Multiphoton cross sections have been obtained through a technique of scaling, with occasional adjustment to the data, provided the two prove to be compatible. Whatever discrepancies between theory and experiment persist can be reasonably attributed to some uncertainty in the experimental conditions and possibly to the value of some cross sections, without, however, any evidence for nonperturbative behavior.