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Lechowski B, Kutukova K, Grenzer J, Panchenko I, Krueger P, Clausner A, Zschech E. Laboratory X-ray Microscopy of 3D Nanostructures in the Hard X-ray Regime Enabled by a Combination of Multilayer X-ray Optics. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 14:233. [PMID: 38276751 PMCID: PMC10819039 DOI: 10.3390/nano14020233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2023] [Revised: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
High-resolution imaging of buried metal interconnect structures in advanced microelectronic products with full-field X-ray microscopy is demonstrated in the hard X-ray regime, i.e., at photon energies > 10 keV. The combination of two multilayer optics-a side-by-side Montel (or nested Kirkpatrick-Baez) condenser optic and a high aspect-ratio multilayer Laue lens-results in an asymmetric optical path in the transmission X-ray microscope. This optics arrangement allows the imaging of 3D nanostructures in opaque objects at a photon energy of 24.2 keV (In-Kα X-ray line). Using a Siemens star test pattern with a minimal feature size of 150 nm, it was proven that features < 150 nm can be resolved. In-Kα radiation is generated from a Ga-In alloy target using a laboratory X-ray source that employs the liquid-metal-jet technology. Since the penetration depth of X-rays into the samples is significantly larger compared to 8 keV photons used in state-of-the-art laboratory X-ray microscopes (Cu-Kα radiation), 3D-nanopattered materials and structures can be imaged nondestructively in mm to cm thick samples. This means that destructive de-processing, thinning or cross-sectioning of the samples are not needed for the visualization of interconnect structures in microelectronic products manufactured using advanced packaging technologies. The application of laboratory transmission X-ray microscopy in the hard X-ray regime is demonstrated for Cu/Cu6Sn5/Cu microbump interconnects fabricated using solid-liquid interdiffusion (SLID) bonding.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Joerg Grenzer
- deepXscan GmbH, Zeppelinstr. 1, 01324 Dresden, Germany
| | - Iuliana Panchenko
- Institute of Electronic Packaging Technology, Technische Universität Dresden, Helmholtzstr. 10, 01069 Dresden, Germany
- Fraunhofer Institute for Reliability and Microintegration, All Silicon System Integration Dresden, Ringstr. 12, 01468 Moritzburg, Germany
| | - Peter Krueger
- Fraunhofer Institute for Ceramic Technologies and Systems, Maria-Reiche-Str. 5, 01099 Dresden, Germany
| | - Andre Clausner
- Fraunhofer Institute for Ceramic Technologies and Systems, Maria-Reiche-Str. 5, 01099 Dresden, Germany
| | - Ehrenfried Zschech
- deepXscan GmbH, Zeppelinstr. 1, 01324 Dresden, Germany
- Research Area Nanomaterials, Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus-Senftenberg, Konrad-Zuse-Str. 1, 03046 Cottbus, Germany
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2
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Rongpipi S, Barnes WJ, Siemianowski O, Del Mundo JT, Wang C, Freychet G, Zhernenkov M, Anderson CT, Gomez EW, Gomez ED. Measuring calcium content in plants using NEXAFS spectroscopy. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1212126. [PMID: 37662163 PMCID: PMC10468975 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1212126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023]
Abstract
Calcium is important for the growth and development of plants. It serves crucial functions in cell wall and cell membrane structure and serves as a secondary messenger in signaling pathways relevant to nutrient and immunity responses. Thus, measuring calcium levels in plants is important for studies of plant biology and for technology development in food, agriculture, energy, and forest industries. Often, calcium in plants has been measured through techniques such as atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS), inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and electrophysiology. These techniques, however, require large sample sizes, chemical extraction of samples or have limited spatial resolution. Here, we used near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) spectroscopy at the calcium L- and K-edges to measure the calcium to carbon mass ratio with spatial resolution in plant samples without requiring chemical extraction or large sample sizes. We demonstrate that the integrated absorbance at the calcium L-edge and the edge jump in the fluorescence yield at the calcium K-edge can be used to quantify the calcium content as the calcium mass fraction, and validate this approach with onion epidermal peels and ICP-MS. We also used NEXAFS to estimate the calcium mass ratio in hypocotyls of a model plant, Arabidopsis thaliana, which has a cell wall composition that is similar to that of onion epidermal peels. These results show that NEXAFS spectroscopy performed at the calcium edge provides an approach to quantify calcium levels within plants, which is crucial for understanding plant physiology and advancing plant-based materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sintu Rongpipi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - William J. Barnes
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Oskar Siemianowski
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Joshua T. Del Mundo
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Cheng Wang
- Advanced Light Source, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Guillaume Freychet
- National Synchrotron Light Source II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, United States
| | - Mikhail Zhernenkov
- National Synchrotron Light Source II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, United States
| | - Charles T. Anderson
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Esther W. Gomez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Enrique D. Gomez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Materials Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
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3
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Sanli UT, Rodgers G, Zdora MC, Qi P, Garrevoet J, Falch KV, Müller B, David C, Vila-Comamala J. Apochromatic X-ray focusing. LIGHT, SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS 2023; 12:107. [PMID: 37142565 PMCID: PMC10160054 DOI: 10.1038/s41377-023-01157-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Achromatic doublets are combinations of two individual lenses designed to focus different wavelengths of light in the same position. Apochromatic optics are improved versions of the achromatic schemes which extend the wavelength range significantly. Both achromatic and apochromatic optics are well-established for visible light. However, X-ray achromatic lenses did not exist until very recently, and X-ray apochromatic lenses have never been experimentally demonstrated. Here, we create an X-ray apochromatic lens system using an appropriate combination of a Fresnel zone plate and a diverging compound refractive lens with a tuned separation distance. The energy-dependent performance of this apochromat was characterized at photon energies between 6.5 and 13.0 keV by ptychographic reconstruction of the focal spot and scanning transmission X-ray microscopy of a resolution test sample. The apochromat delivered a reconstructed focal spot size of 940 × 740 nm2. The apochromatic combination shows a four-fold improvement in the chromatic aberration correction range compared to an achromatic doublet configuration. Thus, apochromatic X-ray optics have the potential to increase the focal spot intensity for a wide variety of X-ray applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Umut T Sanli
- Paul Scherrer Institute, Laboratory for X-ray Nanoscience and Technologies, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232, Villigen, Switzerland.
| | - Griffin Rodgers
- Biomaterials Science Center, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Basel, Hegenheimermattweg 167 B, 4123, Allschwil, Switzerland
| | - Marie-Christine Zdora
- Paul Scherrer Institute, Laboratory for X-ray Nanoscience and Technologies, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232, Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Peng Qi
- Paul Scherrer Institute, Laboratory for X-ray Nanoscience and Technologies, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232, Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Jan Garrevoet
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, Notkestr. 85, 22607, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ken Vidar Falch
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, Notkestr. 85, 22607, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Bert Müller
- Biomaterials Science Center, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Basel, Hegenheimermattweg 167 B, 4123, Allschwil, Switzerland
| | - Christian David
- Paul Scherrer Institute, Laboratory for X-ray Nanoscience and Technologies, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232, Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Joan Vila-Comamala
- Paul Scherrer Institute, Laboratory for X-ray Nanoscience and Technologies, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232, Villigen, Switzerland
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4
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Kinetic study on initial surface reaction of titanium dioxide growth using tetrakis(dimethylamino)titanium and water in atomic layer deposition process: Density functional theory calculation. Chem Phys 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphys.2022.111653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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5
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Finizio S, Watts B, Raabe J. Why is my image noisy? A look into the terms contributing to a time-resolved X-ray microscopy image. JOURNAL OF SYNCHROTRON RADIATION 2021; 28:1146-1158. [PMID: 34212878 DOI: 10.1107/s1600577521004240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Through Monte Carlo simulations, we investigate how various experimental parameters can influence the quality of time-resolved scanning transmission X-ray microscopy images. In particular, the effect of the X-ray photon flux, of the thickness of the investigated samples, and of the frequency of the dynamical process under investigation on the resulting time-resolved image are investigated. The ideal sample and imaging conditions that allow for an optimal image quality are then identifed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Finizio
- Swiss Light Source, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin Watts
- Swiss Light Source, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Jörg Raabe
- Swiss Light Source, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
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6
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De Andrade V, Nikitin V, Wojcik M, Deriy A, Bean S, Shu D, Mooney T, Peterson K, Kc P, Li K, Ali S, Fezzaa K, Gürsoy D, Arico C, Ouendi S, Troadec D, Simon P, De Carlo F, Lethien C. Fast X-ray Nanotomography with Sub-10 nm Resolution as a Powerful Imaging Tool for Nanotechnology and Energy Storage Applications. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2021; 33:e2008653. [PMID: 33871108 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202008653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
In the last decade, transmission X-ray microscopes (TXMs) have come into operation in most of the synchrotrons worldwide. They have proven to be outstanding tools for non-invasive ex and in situ 3D characterization of materials at the nanoscale across varying range of scientific applications. However, their spatial resolution has not improved in many years, while newly developed functional materials and microdevices with enhanced performances exhibit nanostructures always finer. Here, optomechanical breakthroughs leading to fast 3D tomographic acquisitions (85 min) with sub-10 nm spatial resolution, narrowing the gap between X-ray and electron microscopy, are reported. These new achievements are first validated with 3D characterizations of nanolithography objects corresponding to ultrahigh-aspect-ratio hard X-ray zone plates. Then, this powerful technique is used to investigate the morphology and conformality of nanometer-thick film electrodes synthesized by atomic layer deposition and magnetron sputtering deposition methods on 3D silicon scaffolds for electrochemical energy storage applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent De Andrade
- X-ray Science Division, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USA
| | - Viktor Nikitin
- X-ray Science Division, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USA
| | - Michael Wojcik
- X-ray Science Division, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USA
| | - Alex Deriy
- X-ray Science Division, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USA
| | - Sunil Bean
- X-ray Science Division, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USA
| | - Deming Shu
- X-ray Science Division, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USA
| | - Tim Mooney
- X-ray Science Division, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USA
| | - Kevin Peterson
- X-ray Science Division, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USA
| | - Prabhat Kc
- X-ray Science Division, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USA
| | - Kenan Li
- Applied Physics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, 94025, USA
| | - Sajid Ali
- Applied Physics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Kamel Fezzaa
- X-ray Science Division, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USA
| | - Doga Gürsoy
- X-ray Science Division, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USA
| | - Cassandra Arico
- Institut d'Electronique, de Microélectronique et de Nanotechnologie, Université de Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille Institut, YNCREA-ISEN, Université Polytechnique des Hauts de France UPHF, CNRS UMR 8520-IEMN, Lille, F-59000, France
- Centre Interuniversitaire de Recherche et d'Ingénierie des Matériaux (CIRIMAT), CNRS UMR 5085 - Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, 31062, France
- Réseau sur le Stockage Electrochimique de l'Energie (RS2E), CNRS FR 3459, Amiens Cedex, 80039, France
| | - Saliha Ouendi
- Institut d'Electronique, de Microélectronique et de Nanotechnologie, Université de Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille Institut, YNCREA-ISEN, Université Polytechnique des Hauts de France UPHF, CNRS UMR 8520-IEMN, Lille, F-59000, France
- Réseau sur le Stockage Electrochimique de l'Energie (RS2E), CNRS FR 3459, Amiens Cedex, 80039, France
| | - David Troadec
- Institut d'Electronique, de Microélectronique et de Nanotechnologie, Université de Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille Institut, YNCREA-ISEN, Université Polytechnique des Hauts de France UPHF, CNRS UMR 8520-IEMN, Lille, F-59000, France
- Réseau sur le Stockage Electrochimique de l'Energie (RS2E), CNRS FR 3459, Amiens Cedex, 80039, France
| | - Patrice Simon
- Centre Interuniversitaire de Recherche et d'Ingénierie des Matériaux (CIRIMAT), CNRS UMR 5085 - Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, 31062, France
- Réseau sur le Stockage Electrochimique de l'Energie (RS2E), CNRS FR 3459, Amiens Cedex, 80039, France
| | - Francesco De Carlo
- X-ray Science Division, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USA
| | - Christophe Lethien
- Institut d'Electronique, de Microélectronique et de Nanotechnologie, Université de Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille Institut, YNCREA-ISEN, Université Polytechnique des Hauts de France UPHF, CNRS UMR 8520-IEMN, Lille, F-59000, France
- Réseau sur le Stockage Electrochimique de l'Energie (RS2E), CNRS FR 3459, Amiens Cedex, 80039, France
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7
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Du M, Di ZW, Gürsoy D, Xian RP, Kozorovitskiy Y, Jacobsen C. Upscaling X-ray nanoimaging to macroscopic specimens. J Appl Crystallogr 2021; 54:386-401. [PMID: 33953650 PMCID: PMC8056767 DOI: 10.1107/s1600576721000194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Upscaling X-ray nanoimaging to macroscopic specimens has the potential for providing insights across multiple length scales, but its feasibility has long been an open question. By combining the imaging requirements and existing proof-of-principle examples in large-specimen preparation, data acquisition and reconstruction algorithms, the authors provide imaging time estimates for howX-ray nanoimaging can be scaled to macroscopic specimens. To arrive at this estimate, a phase contrast imaging model that includes plural scattering effects is used to calculate the required exposure and corresponding radiation dose. The coherent X-ray flux anticipated from upcoming diffraction-limited light sources is then considered. This imaging time estimation is in particular applied to the case of the connectomes of whole mouse brains. To image the connectome of the whole mouse brain, electron microscopy connectomics might require years, whereas optimized X-ray microscopy connectomics could reduce this to one week. Furthermore, this analysis points to challenges that need to be overcome (such as increased X-ray detector frame rate) and opportunities that advances in artificial-intelligence-based 'smart' scanning might provide. While the technical advances required are daunting, it is shown that X-ray microscopy is indeed potentially applicable to nanoimaging of millimetre- or even centimetre-size specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Du
- Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL 60439, USA
| | - Zichao Wendy Di
- Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL 60439, USA.,Mathematics and Computer Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL 60439, USA
| | - Doǧa Gürsoy
- Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL 60439, USA.,Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - R Patrick Xian
- Department of Neurobiology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Yevgenia Kozorovitskiy
- Department of Neurobiology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA.,Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Chris Jacobsen
- Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL 60439, USA.,Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA.,Department of Physics and Astronomy, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
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8
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Vila-Comamala J, Romano L, Jefimovs K, Dejea H, Bonnin A, Cook AC, Planinc I, Cikes M, Wang Z, Stampanoni M. High sensitivity X-ray phase contrast imaging by laboratory grating-based interferometry at high Talbot order geometry. OPTICS EXPRESS 2021; 29:2049-2064. [PMID: 33726406 DOI: 10.1364/oe.414174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
X-ray phase contrast imaging is a powerful analysis technique for materials science and biomedicine. Here, we report on laboratory grating-based X-ray interferometry employing a microfocus X-ray source and a high Talbot order (35th) asymmetric geometry to achieve high angular sensitivity and high spatial resolution X-ray phase contrast imaging in a compact system (total length <1 m). The detection of very small refractive angles (∼50 nrad) at an interferometer design energy of 19 keV was enabled by combining small period X-ray gratings (1.0, 1.5 and 3.0 µm) and a single-photon counting X-ray detector (75 µm pixel size). The performance of the X-ray interferometer was fully characterized in terms of angular sensitivity and spatial resolution. Finally, the potential of laboratory X-ray phase contrast for biomedical imaging is demonstrated by obtaining high resolution X-ray phase tomographies of a mouse embryo embedded in solid paraffin and a formalin-fixed full-thickness sample of human left ventricle in water with a spatial resolution of 21.5 µm.
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9
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Yurgens V, Koch F, Scheel M, Weitkamp T, David C. Measurement and compensation of misalignment in double-sided hard X-ray Fresnel zone plates. JOURNAL OF SYNCHROTRON RADIATION 2020; 27:583-589. [PMID: 32381757 PMCID: PMC7206540 DOI: 10.1107/s1600577520001757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Accepted: 02/07/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Double-sided Fresnel zone plates are diffractive lenses used for high-resolution hard X-ray microscopy. The double-sided structures have significantly higher aspect ratios compared with single-sided components and hence enable more efficient imaging. The zone plates discussed in this paper are fabricated on each side of a thin support membrane, and the alignment of the zone plates with respect to each other is critical. Here, a simple and reliable way of quantifying misalignments by recording efficiency maps and measuring the absolute diffraction efficiency of the zone plates as a function of tilting angle in two directions is presented. The measurements are performed in a setup based on a tungsten-anode microfocus X-ray tube, providing an X-ray energy of 8.4 keV through differential measurements with a Cu and an Ni filter. This study investigates the sources of the misalignments and concludes that they can be avoided by decreasing the structure heights on both sides of the membrane and by pre-programming size differences between the front- and back-side zone plates.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Frieder Koch
- Paul Scherrer Institute, 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Mario Scheel
- Synchrotron SOLEIL, 91192 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
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10
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Li K, Ali S, Wojcik M, De Andrade V, Huang X, Yan H, Chu YS, Nazaretski E, Pattammattel A, Jacobsen C. Tunable hard x-ray nanofocusing with Fresnel zone plates fabricated using deep etching. OPTICA 2020; 7:410-416. [PMID: 33294496 PMCID: PMC7720910 DOI: 10.1364/optica.387445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Fresnel zone plates are widely used for x-ray nanofocusing, due to their ease of alignment and energy tunability. Their spatial resolution is limited in part by their outermost zone width dr N , while their efficiency is limited in part by their thickness t zp. We demonstrate the use of Fresnel zone plate optics for x-ray nanofocusing with dr N = 16 nm outermost zone width and a thickness of about t zp = 1.8 μm (or an aspect ratio of 110) with an absolute focusing efficiency of 4.7% at 12 keV, and 6.2% at 10 keV. Using partially coherent illumination at 12 keV, the zone plate delivered a FWHM focus of 46 × 60 nm at 12 keV, with the first order coherent mode in a ptychographic reconstruction showing a probe size of 16 nm FWHM. These optics were fabricated using a combination of metal assisted chemical etching and atomic layer deposition for the diffracting structures, and silicon wafer back-thinning to produce optics useful for real applications. This approach should enable new higher resolution views of thick materials, especially when energy tunability is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenan Li
- Applied Physics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Sajid Ali
- Applied Physics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Michael Wojcik
- Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL 60439, USA
| | - Vincent De Andrade
- Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL 60439, USA
| | - Xiaojing Huang
- National Synchrotron Light Source II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Hanfei Yan
- National Synchrotron Light Source II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Yong S. Chu
- National Synchrotron Light Source II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Evgeny Nazaretski
- National Synchrotron Light Source II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Ajith Pattammattel
- National Synchrotron Light Source II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Chris Jacobsen
- Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL 60439, USA
- Department of Physics & Astronomy, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
- Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
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11
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Growth of Atomic Layer Deposited Ruthenium and Its Optical Properties at Short Wavelengths Using Ru(EtCp)2 and Oxygen. COATINGS 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/coatings8110413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
High-density ruthenium (Ru) thin films were deposited using Ru(EtCp)2 (bis(ethylcyclopentadienyl)ruthenium) and oxygen by thermal atomic layer deposition (ALD) and compared to magnetron sputtered (MS) Ru coatings. The ALD Ru film growth and surface roughness show a significant temperature dependence. At temperatures below 200 °C, no deposition was observed on silicon and fused silica substrates. With increasing deposition temperature, the nucleation of Ru starts and leads eventually to fully closed, polycrystalline coatings. The formation of blisters starts at temperatures above 275 °C because of poor adhesion properties, which results in a high surface roughness. The optimum deposition temperature is 250 °C in our tool and leads to rather smooth film surfaces, with roughness values of approximately 3 nm. The ALD Ru thin films have similar morphology compared with MS coatings, e.g., hexagonal polycrystalline structure and high density. Discrepancies of the optical properties can be explained by the higher roughness of ALD films compared to MS coatings. To use ALD Ru for optical applications at short wavelengths (λ = 2–50 nm), further improvement of their film quality is required.
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12
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Ali SS, Li K, Wojcik M, Jacobsen C. Zone Plate Performance as a Function of Tilt Analyzed via Multislice Simulations. MICROSCOPY AND MICROANALYSIS : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY SOCIETY OF AMERICA, MICROBEAM ANALYSIS SOCIETY, MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 2018; 24:302-303. [PMCID: PMC6214623 DOI: 10.1017/s1431927618013831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Syed Sajid Ali
- Applied Physics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
| | - Kenan Li
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA USA
| | - Michael Wojcik
- Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, IL USA
| | - Chris Jacobsen
- Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, IL USA
- Department of Physics & Astronomy, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
- Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
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13
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Keskinbora K, Sanli UT, Baluktsian M, Grévent C, Weigand M, Schütz G. High-throughput synthesis of modified Fresnel zone plate arrays via ion beam lithography. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2018; 9:2049-2056. [PMID: 30116695 PMCID: PMC6071703 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.9.194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2018] [Accepted: 07/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Fresnel zone plates (FZP) are diffractive photonic devices used for high-resolution imaging and lithography at short wavelengths. Their fabrication requires nano-machining capabilities with exceptional precision and strict tolerances such as those enabled by modern lithography methods. In particular, ion beam lithography (IBL) is a noteworthy method thanks to its robust direct writing/milling capability. IBL allows for rapid prototyping of high-resolution FZPs that can be used for high-resolution imaging at soft X-ray energies. Here, we discuss improvements in the process enabling us to write zones down to 15 nm in width, achieving an effective outermost zone width of 30 nm. With a 35% reduction in process time and an increase in resolution by 26% compared to our previous results, we were able to resolve 21 nm features of a test sample using the FZP. The new process conditions are then applied for fabrication of large arrays of high-resolution zone plates. Results show that relatively large areas can be decorated with nanostructured devices via IBL by using multipurpose SEM/FIB instruments with potential applications in FEL focusing, extreme UV and soft X-ray lithography and as wavefront sensing devices for beam diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kahraman Keskinbora
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstrasse 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Umut Tunca Sanli
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstrasse 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Margarita Baluktsian
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstrasse 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Corinne Grévent
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstrasse 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Markus Weigand
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstrasse 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Gisela Schütz
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstrasse 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
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Li K, Jacobsen C. More are better, but the details matter: combinations of multiple Fresnel zone plates for improved resolution and efficiency in X-ray microscopy. JOURNAL OF SYNCHROTRON RADIATION 2018; 25:1048-1059. [PMID: 29979166 PMCID: PMC6038614 DOI: 10.1107/s1600577518007208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2017] [Accepted: 05/14/2018] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Fresnel zone plates used for X-ray nanofocusing face high-aspect-ratio nanofabrication challenges in combining narrow transverse features (for high spatial resolution) along with extended optical modulation along the X-ray beam direction (to improve efficiency). The stacking of multiple Fresnel zone plates along the beam direction has already been shown to offer improved characteristics of resolution and efficiency when compared with thin single zone plates. Using multislice wave propagation simulation methods, here a number of new schemes for the stacking of multiple Fresnel zone plates are considered. These include consideration of optimal thickness and spacing in the axial direction, and methods to capture a fraction of the light otherwise diffracted into unwanted orders, and instead bring it into the desired first-order focus. The alignment tolerances for stacking multiple Fresnel zone plates are also considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenan Li
- Applied Physics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
- Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL 60439, USA
| | - Chris Jacobsen
- Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL 60439, USA
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL 60439, USA
- Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
- Correspondence e-mail:
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15
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Takeuchi K, Ezoe Y, Ishikawa K, Numazawa M, Terada M, Ishi D, Fujitani M, Sowa MJ, Ohashi T, Mitsuda K. Pt thermal atomic layer deposition for silicon x-ray micropore optics. APPLIED OPTICS 2018; 57:3237-3243. [PMID: 29714311 DOI: 10.1364/ao.57.003237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2018] [Accepted: 03/20/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
We fabricated a silicon micropore optic using deep reactive ion etching and coated by Pt with atomic layer deposition (ALD). We confirmed that a metal/metal oxide bilayer of Al2O3∼10 nm and Pt ∼20 nm was successfully deposited on the micropores whose width and depth are 20 μm and 300 μm, respectively. An increase of surface roughness of sidewalls of the micropores was observed with a transmission electron microscope and an atomic force microscope. X-ray reflectivity with an Al Kα line at 1.49 keV before and after the deposition was measured and compared to ray-tracing simulations. The surface roughness of the sidewalls was estimated to increase from 1.6±0.2 nm rms to 2.2±0.2 nm rms. This result is consistent with the microscope measurements. Post annealing of the Pt-coated optic at 1000°C for 2 h showed a sign of reduced surface roughness and better angular resolution. To reduce the surface roughness, possible methods such as the annealing after deposition and a plasma-enhanced ALD are discussed.
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16
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Roy K, Artiglia L, van Bokhoven JA. Ambient Pressure Photoelectron Spectroscopy: Opportunities in Catalysis from Solids to Liquids and Introducing Time Resolution. ChemCatChem 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201701522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kanak Roy
- Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering; ETH Zürich; Zürich Switzerland
- Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry; Paul Scherrer Institute; Villigen Switzerland
| | - Luca Artiglia
- Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry; Paul Scherrer Institute; Villigen Switzerland
| | - Jeroen A. van Bokhoven
- Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering; ETH Zürich; Zürich Switzerland
- Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry; Paul Scherrer Institute; Villigen Switzerland
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17
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Hémonnot CYJ, Köster S. Imaging of Biological Materials and Cells by X-ray Scattering and Diffraction. ACS NANO 2017; 11:8542-8559. [PMID: 28787573 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.7b03447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Cells and biological materials are large objects in comparison to the size of internal components such as organelles and proteins. An understanding of the functions of these nanoscale elements is key to elucidating cellular function. In this review, we describe the advances in X-ray scattering and diffraction techniques for imaging biological systems at the nanoscale. We present a number of principal technological advances in X-ray optics and development of sample environments. We identify radiation damage as one of the most severe challenges in the field, thus rendering the dose an important parameter when putting different X-ray methods in perspective. Furthermore, we describe different successful approaches, including scanning and full-field techniques, along with prominent examples. Finally, we present a few recent studies that combined several techniques in one experiment in order to collect highly complementary data for a multidimensional sample characterization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clément Y J Hémonnot
- Institute for X-Ray Physics, University of Goettingen , Friedrich-Hund-Platz 1, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
- Northwestern Argonne Institute of Science and Engineering, Northwestern University , 9700 South Cass Avenue, Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
- Argonne National Laboratory , 9700 South Cass Avenue, Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Sarah Köster
- Institute for X-Ray Physics, University of Goettingen , Friedrich-Hund-Platz 1, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
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18
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Lebugle M, Liebi M, Wakonig K, Guzenko VA, Holler M, Menzel A, Guizar-Sicairos M, Diaz A, David C. High-acceptance versatile microfocus module based on elliptical Fresnel zone plates for small-angle X-ray scattering. OPTICS EXPRESS 2017; 25:21145-21158. [PMID: 29041521 DOI: 10.1364/oe.25.021145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2017] [Accepted: 08/11/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
High-efficiency microfocusing of multi-keV X-rays at synchrotron sources is highly profitable for spatially resolved structural analysis of many kinds. Because radiation from synchrotron sources is typically elongated along the horizontal dimension, generating a microbeam that is isotropic in size requires a carefully designed optics system. Here we report on using a combination of a horizontally tunable slit downstream of the undulator source with elliptical diffractive Fresnel zone plates. We demonstrate the arrangement in context of small-angle X-ray scattering experiments, obtaining a microbeam of 2.2 μm × 1.8 μm (X × Y) with a flux of 1.2 × 1010 photons/s at an energy of 11.2 keV at the sample position.
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19
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Abstract
Multi-keV X-ray microscopy has been particularly successful in bridging the resolution gap between optical and electron microscopy. However, resolutions below 20 nm are still considered challenging, as high throughput direct imaging methods are limited by the availability of suitable optical elements. In order to bridge this gap, we present a new type of Fresnel zone plate lenses aimed at the sub-20 and the sub-10 nm resolution range. By extending the concept of double-sided zone plate stacking, we demonstrate the doubling of the effective line density and thus the resolution and provide large aperture, singlechip optical devices with 15 and 7 nm smallest zone widths. The detailed characterization of these lenses shows excellent optical properties with focal spots down to 7.8 nm. Beyond wave front characterization, the zone plates also excel in typical imaging scenarios, verifying their resolution close to their diffraction limited optical performance.
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20
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Li K, Wojcik M, Jacobsen C. Multislice does it all-calculating the performance of nanofocusing X-ray optics. OPTICS EXPRESS 2017. [PMID: 29519036 DOI: 10.1364/oe.25.001831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
We describe an approach to calculating the optical performance of a wide range of nanofocusing X-ray optics using multislice scalar wave propagation with a complex X-ray refractive index. This approach produces results indistinguishable from methods such as coupled wave theory, and it allows one to reproduce other X-ray optical phenomena such as grazing incidence reflectivity where the direction of energy flow is changed significantly. Just as finite element analysis methods allow engineers to compute the thermal and mechanical responses of arbitrary structures too complex to model by analytical approaches, multislice propagation can be used to understand the properties of the real-world optics of finite extent and with local imperfections, allowing one to better understand the limits to nanoscale X-ray imaging.
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21
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Shestaeva S, Bingel A, Munzert P, Ghazaryan L, Patzig C, Tünnermann A, Szeghalmi A. Mechanical, structural, and optical properties of PEALD metallic oxides for optical applications. APPLIED OPTICS 2017; 56:C47-C59. [PMID: 28158051 DOI: 10.1364/ao.56.000c47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Structural, optical, and mechanical properties of Al2O3, SiO2, and HfO2 materials prepared by plasma-enhanced atomic layer deposition (PEALD) were investigated. Residual stress poses significant challenges for optical coatings since it may lead to mechanical failure, but in-depth understanding of these properties is still missing for PEALD coatings. The tensile stress of PEALD alumina films decreases with increasing deposition temperature and is approximately 100 MPa lower than the stress in thermally grown films. It was associated with incorporation of -OH groups in the film as measured by infrared spectroscopy. The tensile stress of hafnia PEALD layers increases with deposition temperature and was related to crystallization of the film. HfO2 nanocrystallites were observed even at 100°C deposition temperature with transmission electron microscopy. Stress in hafnia films can be reduced from approximately 650 MPA to approximately 450 MPa by incorporating ultrathin Al2O3 layers. PEALD silica layers have shown moderate stress values and stress relaxation with the storage time, which was correlated to water adsorption. A complex interference coating system for a dichroic mirror (DCM) at 355 nm wavelength was realized with a total coating thickness of approximately 2 μm. Severe cracking of the DCM coating was observed, and it propagates even into the substrate material, showing a good adhesion of the ALD films. The reflectance peak is above 99.6% despite the mechanical failure, and further optimization on the material properties should be carried out for demanding optical applications.
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22
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Mattinen M, Hämäläinen J, Gao F, Jalkanen P, Mizohata K, Räisänen J, Puurunen RL, Ritala M, Leskelä M. Nucleation and Conformality of Iridium and Iridium Oxide Thin Films Grown by Atomic Layer Deposition. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2016; 32:10559-10569. [PMID: 27673703 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.6b03007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Nucleation and conformality are important issues, when depositing thin films for demanding applications. In this study, iridium and iridium dioxide (IrO2) films were deposited by atomic layer deposition (ALD), using five different processes. Different reactants, namely, O2, air, consecutive O2 and H2 (O2 + H2), and consecutive O3 and H2 (O3 + H2) pulses were used with iridium acetylacetonate [Ir(acac)3] to deposit Ir, while IrO2 was deposited using Ir(acac)3 and O3. Nucleation was studied using a combination of methods for film thickness and morphology evaluation. In conformality studies, microscopic lateral high-aspect-ratio (LHAR) test structures, specifically designed for accurate and versatile conformality testing of ALD films, were used. The order of nucleation, from the fastest to the slowest, was O2 + H2 > air ≈ O2 > O3 > O3 + H2, whereas the order of conformality, from the best to the worst, was O3 + H2 > O2 + H2 > O2 > O3. In the O3 process, a change in film composition from IrO2 to metallic Ir was seen inside the LHAR structures. Compared to the previous reports on ALD of platinum-group metals, most of the studied processes showed good to excellent results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miika Mattinen
- Laboratory of Inorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki , P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jani Hämäläinen
- Laboratory of Inorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki , P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Feng Gao
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland , P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 Espoo, Finland
| | - Pasi Jalkanen
- Division of Materials Physics, Department of Physics, University of Helsinki , P.O. Box 43, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Kenichiro Mizohata
- Division of Materials Physics, Department of Physics, University of Helsinki , P.O. Box 43, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jyrki Räisänen
- Division of Materials Physics, Department of Physics, University of Helsinki , P.O. Box 43, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Riikka L Puurunen
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland , P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 Espoo, Finland
| | - Mikko Ritala
- Laboratory of Inorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki , P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Markku Leskelä
- Laboratory of Inorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki , P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
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23
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Pan H, Späth C, Guggenmos A, Chew SH, Schmidt J, Zhao QZ, Kleineberg U. Low chromatic Fresnel lens for broadband attosecond XUV pulse applications. OPTICS EXPRESS 2016; 24:16788-16798. [PMID: 27464132 DOI: 10.1364/oe.24.016788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Fresnel zone plates show a great potential in achieving high spatial resolution imaging or focusing for XUV and soft/hard X-ray radiation, however they are usually strictly monochromatic due to strong chromatic dispersion and thus do not support broad radiation spectra, preventing their application to attosecond XUV pulses. Here we report on the design and theoretical simulations based on the design of an achromatic hybrid optics combining both, a refractive and diffractive lens in one optical element. We are able to show by calculation that the chromatic dispersion along the optical axis can be greatly reduced compared to a standard Fresnel zone plate while preserving the temporal structure of the attosecond XUV pulses at focus.
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24
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Vikulova ES, Ilyin IY, Karakovskaya KI, Piryazev DA, Turgambaeva AE, Morozova NB. Volatile iridium(I) complexes with β-diketones and cyclooctadiene: syntheses, structures and thermal properties. J COORD CHEM 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/00958972.2016.1198955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- E. S. Vikulova
- Nikolaev Institute of Inorganic Chemistry SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation
| | - I. Yu. Ilyin
- Nikolaev Institute of Inorganic Chemistry SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation
| | - K. I. Karakovskaya
- Nikolaev Institute of Inorganic Chemistry SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation
- Department of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation
| | - D. A. Piryazev
- Nikolaev Institute of Inorganic Chemistry SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation
- Department of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation
| | - A. E. Turgambaeva
- Nikolaev Institute of Inorganic Chemistry SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation
| | - N. B. Morozova
- Nikolaev Institute of Inorganic Chemistry SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation
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25
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Li K, Jacobsen C. Rapid calculation of paraxial wave propagation for cylindrically symmetric optics. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2015; 32:2074-81. [PMID: 26560922 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.32.002074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
When calculating the focusing properties of cylindrically symmetric focusing optics, numerical wave propagation calculations can be carried out using the quasi-discrete Hankel transform (QDHT). We describe here an implementation of the QDHT where a partial transform matrix can be stored to speed up repeated wave propagations over specified distances, with reduced computational memory requirements. The accuracy of the approach is then verified by comparison with analytical results, over propagation distances with both small and large Fresnel numbers. We then demonstrate the utility of this approach for calculating the focusing properties of Fresnel zone plate optics that are commonly used for x-ray imaging applications and point to future applications of this approach.
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26
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Indirect localization of a magnetic domain wall mediated by quasi walls. Sci Rep 2015; 5:9815. [PMID: 26011004 PMCID: PMC4443762 DOI: 10.1038/srep09815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2015] [Accepted: 03/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The manipulation of magnetic domain walls in thin films and nanostructures opens new opportunities for fundamental and applied research. But controlling reliably the position of a moving domain wall still remains challenging. So far, most of the studies aimed at understanding the physics of pinning and depinning processes in the magnetic layer in which the wall moves (active layer). In these studies, the role of other magnetic layers in the stack has been often ignored. Here, we report an indirect localization process of 180° domain walls that occurs in magnetic tunnel junctions, commonly used in spintronics. Combining Scanning Transmission X-Ray Microscopy and micromagnetic simulations, magnetic configurations in both layers are resolved. When nucleating a 180° domain wall in the active layer, a quasi wall is created in the reference layer, atop the wall. The wall and its quasi wall must then be moved or positioned together, as a unique object. As a mutual effect, a localized change of the magnetic properties in the reference layer induces a localized quasi wall in the active layer. The two types of quasi walls are shown to be responsible for an indirect localization process of the 180° domain wall in the active layer.
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27
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Rehbein S, Lyon A, Leung R, Feser M, Schneider G. Near field stacking of zone plates for reduction of their effective zone period. OPTICS EXPRESS 2015; 23:11063-11072. [PMID: 25969202 DOI: 10.1364/oe.23.011063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Here we analyze the potential of a new fabrication method for high resolution zone plates with high aspect ratios based on near field stacking of frequency doubled atomic layer deposited (ALD) zone plates. The proposed method enables reduction of the effective zone period by a factor of four with two zone plate layers compared to the initial e-beam lithography exposed outermost zone period. It also overcomes the problem that very small zone widths with high aspect ratios have to be fabricated for high-resolution hard X-ray microscopy. Using rigorous coupled wave theory, we have analyzed the diffraction behavior of these near field stacked zone plates and investigated strategies to optimize fabrication parameters to compensate for separation of stacked zone plates. The calculations performed for 8 keV photon energy and effective outermost zone widths of 28 nm and 15 nm predict diffraction efficiencies ≥ 20% suggesting that such optics could find widespread practical applications.
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28
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Osterhoff M, Eberl C, Döring F, Wilke RN, Wallentin J, Krebs HU, Sprung M, Salditt T. Towards multi-order hard X-ray imaging with multilayer zone plates. J Appl Crystallogr 2015; 48:116-124. [PMID: 26089748 PMCID: PMC4453173 DOI: 10.1107/s1600576714026016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2014] [Accepted: 11/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
This article describes holographic imaging experiments using a hard X-ray multilayer zone plate (MZP) with an outermost zone width of 10 nm at a photon energy of 18 keV. An order-sorting aperture (OSA) is omitted and emulated during data analysis by a 'software OSA'. Scanning transmission X-ray microscopy usually carried out in the focal plane is generalized to the holographic regime. The MZP focus is characterized by a three-plane phase-retrieval algorithm to an FWHM of 10 nm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Osterhoff
- Institut für Röntgenphysik, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Friedrich-Hund-Platz 1, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Christian Eberl
- Institut für Materialphysik, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Friedrich-Hund-Platz 1, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Florian Döring
- Institut für Materialphysik, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Friedrich-Hund-Platz 1, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Robin N. Wilke
- Institut für Röntgenphysik, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Friedrich-Hund-Platz 1, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Jesper Wallentin
- Institut für Röntgenphysik, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Friedrich-Hund-Platz 1, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Hans-Ulrich Krebs
- Institut für Materialphysik, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Friedrich-Hund-Platz 1, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Michael Sprung
- DESY Photon Science, Notkestrasse 85, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Tim Salditt
- Institut für Röntgenphysik, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Friedrich-Hund-Platz 1, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
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29
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Mohacsi I, Vartiainen I, Guizar-Sicairos M, Karvinen P, Guzenko VA, Müller E, Färm E, Ritala M, Kewish CM, Somogyi A, David C. High resolution double-sided diffractive optics for hard X-ray microscopy. OPTICS EXPRESS 2015; 23:776-786. [PMID: 25835837 DOI: 10.1364/oe.23.000776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The fabrication of high aspect ratio metallic nanostructures is crucial for the production of efficient diffractive X-ray optics in the hard X-ray range. We present a novel method to increase their structure height via the double-sided patterning of the support membrane. In transmission, the two Fresnel zone plates on the two sides of the substrate will act as a single zone plate with added structure height. The presented double-sided zone plates with 30 nm smallest zone width offer up to 9.9% focusing efficiency at 9 keV, that results in a factor of two improvement over their previously demonstrated single-sided counterparts. The increase in efficiency paves the way to speed up X-ray microscopy measurements and allows the more efficient utilization of the flux in full-field X-ray microscopy.
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30
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STXM goes 3D: Digital reconstruction of focal stacks as novel approach towards confocal soft x-ray microscopy. Ultramicroscopy 2014; 144:19-25. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2014.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2013] [Revised: 04/07/2014] [Accepted: 04/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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31
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de Jonge MD, Ryan CG, Jacobsen CJ. X-ray nanoprobes and diffraction-limited storage rings: opportunities and challenges of fluorescence tomography of biological specimens. JOURNAL OF SYNCHROTRON RADIATION 2014; 21:1031-47. [PMID: 25177992 PMCID: PMC4151681 DOI: 10.1107/s160057751401621x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2014] [Accepted: 07/11/2014] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
X-ray nanoprobes require coherent illumination to achieve optic-limited resolution, and so will benefit directly from diffraction-limited storage rings. Here, the example of high-resolution X-ray fluorescence tomography is focused on as one of the most voracious demanders of coherent photons, since the detected signal is only a small fraction of the incident flux. Alternative schemes are considered for beam delivery, sample scanning and detectors. One must consider as well the steps before and after the X-ray experiment: sample preparation and examination conditions, and analysis complexity due to minimum dose requirements and self-absorption. By understanding the requirements and opportunities for nanoscale fluorescence tomography, one gains insight into the R&D challenges in optics and instrumentation needed to fully exploit the source advances that diffraction-limited storage rings offer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin D. de Jonge
- Australian Synchrotron, 800 Blackburn Road, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia
| | - Christopher G. Ryan
- CSIRO Earth Science and Research Engineering, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia
| | - Chris J. Jacobsen
- Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 South Cass Avenue, Argonne, IL 60439, USA
- Department of Physics, Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Northwestern University, 2170 Campus Drive, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
- Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Northwestern University, 2170 Campus Drive, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
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32
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Niese S, Krüger P, Kubec A, Braun S, Patommel J, Schroer CG, Leson A, Zschech E. Full-field X-ray microscopy with crossed partial multilayer Laue lenses. OPTICS EXPRESS 2014; 22:20008-20013. [PMID: 25321210 DOI: 10.1364/oe.22.020008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate full-field X-ray microscopy using crossed multilayer Laue lenses (MLL). Two partial MLLs are prepared out of a 48 μm high multilayer stack consisting of 2451 alternating zones of WSi2 and Si. They are assembled perpendicularly in series to obtain two-dimensional imaging. Experiments are done in a laboratory X-ray microscope using Cu-Kα radiation (E = 8.05 keV, focal length f = 8.0 mm). Sub-100 nm resolution is demonstrated without mixed-order imaging at an appropriate position of the image plane. Although existing deviations from design parameters still cause aberrations, MLLs are a promising approach to realize hard X-ray microscopy at high efficiencies with resolutions down to the sub-10 nm range in future.
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Fox OJL, Alianelli L, Malik AM, Pape I, May PW, Sawhney KJS. Nanofocusing optics for synchrotron radiation made from polycrystalline diamond. OPTICS EXPRESS 2014; 22:7657-7668. [PMID: 24718141 DOI: 10.1364/oe.22.007657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Diamond possesses many extreme properties that make it an ideal material for fabricating nanofocusing x-ray optics. Refractive lenses made from diamond are able to focus x-ray radiation with high efficiency but without compromising the brilliance of the beam. Electron-beam lithography and deep reactive-ion etching of silicon substrates have been used in a transfer-molding technique to fabricate diamond optics with vertical and smooth sidewalls. Latest generation compound refractive lenses have seen an improvement in the quality and uniformity of the optical structures, resulting in an increase in their focusing ability. Synchrotron beamline tests of two recent lens arrays, corresponding to two different diamond morphologies, are described. Focal line-widths down to 210 nm, using a nanocrystalline diamond lens array and a beam energy of E = 11 keV, and 230 nm, using a microcrystalline diamond lens at E = 15 keV, have been measured using the Diamond Light Source Ltd. B16 beamline. This focusing prowess is combined with relatively high transmission through the lenses compared with silicon refractive designs and other diffractive optics.
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Sarkar SS, Solak HH, David C, van der Veen JF. Pinhole diffraction holography for fabrication of high-resolution Fresnel zone plates. OPTICS EXPRESS 2014; 22:1402-1412. [PMID: 24515148 DOI: 10.1364/oe.22.001402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Fresnel zone plates (FZPs) play an essential role in high spatial resolution x-ray imaging and analysis of materials in many fields. These diffractive lenses are commonly made by serial writing techniques such as electron beam or focused ion beam lithography. Here we show that pinhole diffraction holography has potential to generate FZP patterns that are free from aberrations and imperfections that may be present in alternative fabrication techniques. In this presented method, FZPs are fabricated by recording interference pattern of a spherical wave generated by diffraction through a pinhole, illuminated with coherent plane wave at extreme ultraviolet (EUV) wavelength. Fundamental and practical issues involved in formation and recording of the interference pattern are considered. It is found that resolution of the produced FZP is directly related to the diameter of the pinhole used and the pinhole size cannot be made arbitrarily small as the transmission of EUV or x-ray light through small pinholes diminishes due to poor refractive index contrast found between materials in these spectral ranges. We also find that the practical restrictions on exposure time due to the light intensity available from current sources directly imposes a limit on the number of zones that can be printed with this method. Therefore a trade-off between the resolution and the FZP diameter exists. Overall, we find that this method can be used to fabricate aberration free FZPs down to a resolution of about 10 nm.
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Ogawa T, Ezoe Y, Moriyama T, Mitsuishi I, Kakiuchi T, Ohashi T, Mitsuda K, Putkonen M. Iridium-coated micropore x-ray optics using dry etching of a silicon wafer and atomic layer deposition. APPLIED OPTICS 2013; 52:5949-5956. [PMID: 24084996 DOI: 10.1364/ao.52.005949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2013] [Accepted: 07/18/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
To enhance x-ray reflectivity of silicon micropore optics using dry etching of silicon (111) wafers, iridium coating is tested by use of atomic layer deposition. An iridium layer is successfully formed on sidewalls of tiny micropores with a pore width of 20 μm and depth of 300 μm. The film thickness is ∼20 nm. An enhanced x-ray reflectivity compared to that of silicon is confirmed at Ti Kα 4.51 keV, for what we believe to be the first time, with this type of optics. Some discrepancies from a theoretical reflectivity curve of iridium-coated silicon are noticed at small incident angles <1.3°. When a geometrical shadowing effect due to occultation by a ridge existing on the sidewalls is taken into account, the observed reflectivity becomes well represented by the modified theoretical curve. An estimated surface micro roughness of ∼1 nm rms is consistent with atomic force microscope measurements of the sidewalls.
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36
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Döring F, Robisch AL, Eberl C, Osterhoff M, Ruhlandt A, Liese T, Schlenkrich F, Hoffmann S, Bartels M, Salditt T, Krebs HU. Sub-5 nm hard x-ray point focusing by a combined Kirkpatrick-Baez mirror and multilayer zone plate. OPTICS EXPRESS 2013; 21:19311-19323. [PMID: 23938848 DOI: 10.1364/oe.21.019311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Compound optics such as lens systems can overcome the limitations concerning resolution, efficiency, or aberrations which fabrication constraints would impose on any single optical element. In this work we demonstrate unprecedented sub-5 nm point focusing of hard x-rays, based on the combination of a high gain Kirkpatrick-Baez (KB) mirror system and a high resolution W/Si multilayer zone plate (MZP) for ultra-short focal length f. The pre-focusing allows limiting the MZP radius to below 2 μm, compatible with the required 5 nm structure width and essentially unlimited aspect ratios, provided by enabling fabrication technology based on pulsed laser deposition (PLD) and focused ion beam (FIB).
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Affiliation(s)
- F Döring
- Institut für Materialphysik, Universität Göttingen, Friedrich-Hund-Platz 1, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
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37
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Vila-Comamala J, Wojcik M, Diaz A, Guizar-Sicairos M, Kewish CM, Wang S, David C. Angular spectrum simulation of X-ray focusing by Fresnel zone plates. JOURNAL OF SYNCHROTRON RADIATION 2013; 20:397-404. [PMID: 23592617 PMCID: PMC3943547 DOI: 10.1107/s090904951300263x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2012] [Accepted: 01/25/2013] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
A computing simulation routine to model any type of circularly symmetric diffractive X-ray element has been implemented. The wavefield transmitted beyond the diffractive structures is numerically computed by the angular spectrum propagation method to an arbitrary propagation distance. Cylindrical symmetry is exploited to reduce the computation and memory requirements while preserving the accuracy of the numerical calculation through a quasi-discrete Hankel transform algorithm, an approach described by Guizar-Sicairos & Gutierrez-Vega [J. Opt. Soc. Am. A, (2004), 21, 53-58]. In particular, the code has been used to investigate the requirements for the stacking of two high-resolution Fresnel zone plates with an outermost zone width of 20 nm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joan Vila-Comamala
- Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
- Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL 60439, USA
| | | | - Ana Diaz
- Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | | | - Cameron M. Kewish
- Synchrotron SOLEIL, Saint Aubin, BP-48, 91192 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Steve Wang
- Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL 60439, USA
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Nazaretski E, Kim J, Yan H, Lauer K, Eom D, Shu D, Maser J, Pešić Z, Wagner U, Rau C, Chu YS. Performance and characterization of the prototype nm-scale spatial resolution scanning multilayer Laue lenses microscope. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2013; 84:033701. [PMID: 23556821 DOI: 10.1063/1.4774387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Synchrotron based x-ray microscopy established itself as a prominent tool for noninvasive investigations in many areas of science and technology. Many facilities around the world routinely achieve sub-micrometer resolution with a few instruments capable of imaging with the spatial resolution better than 100 nm. With an ongoing effort to push the 2D/3D resolution down to 10 nm in the hard x-ray regime both fabrication of the nano-focusing optics and stability of a microscope become extremely challenging. In this work we present our approach to overcome technical challenges on the path towards high spatial resolution hard x-ray microscopy and demonstrate the performance of a scanning fluorescence microscope equipped with the multilayer Laue lenses focusing optics.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Nazaretski
- Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, USA
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39
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Abstract
The technology to focus hard-X-rays (photon energy larger than 1–2 keV) has made great progress in the past three years. The progress was particularly spectacular for lenses based on the Fresnel zone plate concept. The spatial resolution notably increased by a factor of three, opening up entirely new domains of application, specifically in biomedical research. As we shall see, this evolution is the result of a painstaking optimization of many different aspects rather than of a single technical breakthrough.
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41
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Vila-Comamala J, Pan Y, Lombardo JJ, Harris WM, Chiu WKS, David C, Wang Y. Zone-doubled Fresnel zone plates for high-resolution hard X-ray full-field transmission microscopy. JOURNAL OF SYNCHROTRON RADIATION 2012; 19:705-9. [PMID: 22898949 PMCID: PMC3579491 DOI: 10.1107/s0909049512029640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2012] [Accepted: 06/28/2012] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Full-field transmission X-ray microscopy is a unique non-destructive technique for three-dimensional imaging of specimens at the nanometer scale. Here, the use of zone-doubled Fresnel zone plates to achieve a spatial resolution better than 20 nm in the hard X-ray regime (8-10 keV) is reported. By obtaining a tomographic reconstruction of a Ni/YSZ solid-oxide fuel cell, the feasibility of performing three-dimensional imaging of scientifically relevant samples using such high-spatial-resolution Fresnel zone plates is demonstrated.
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42
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Holler M, Raabe J, Diaz A, Guizar-Sicairos M, Quitmann C, Menzel A, Bunk O. An instrument for 3D x-ray nano-imaging. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2012; 83:073703. [PMID: 22852697 DOI: 10.1063/1.4737624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
We present an instrument dedicated to 3D scanning x-ray microscopy, allowing a sample to be precisely scanned through a beam while the angle of x-ray incidence can be changed. The position of the sample is controlled with respect to the beam-defining optics by laser interferometry. The instrument achieves a position stability better than 10 nm standard deviation. The instrument performance is assessed using scanning x-ray diffraction microscopy and we demonstrate a resolution of 18 nm in 2D imaging of a lithographic test pattern while the beam was defined by a pinhole of 3 μm in diameter. In 3D on a test object of copper interconnects of a microprocessor, a resolution of 53 nm is achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Holler
- Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland.
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43
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Chao W, Fischer P, Tyliszczak T, Rekawa S, Anderson E, Naulleau P. Real space soft x-ray imaging at 10 nm spatial resolution. OPTICS EXPRESS 2012; 20:9777-83. [PMID: 22535070 DOI: 10.1364/oe.20.009777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Using Fresnel zone plates made with our robust nanofabrication processes, we have successfully achieved 10 nm spatial resolution with soft x-ray microscopy. The result, obtained with both a conventional full-field and scanning soft x-ray microscope, marks a significant step forward in extending the microscopy to truly nanoscale studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Chao
- Center for X-ray Optics, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, USA.
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44
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Mayer M, Grévent C, Szeghalmi A, Knez M, Weigand M, Rehbein S, Schneider G, Baretzky B, Schütz G. Multilayer Fresnel zone plate for soft X-ray microscopy resolves sub-39nm structures. Ultramicroscopy 2011; 111:1706-11. [PMID: 22088445 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2011.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2011] [Revised: 07/26/2011] [Accepted: 09/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Best resolutions in X-ray focusing are obtained to date by using diffractive lenses called Fresnel zone plates (FZPs). Their further improvement is nevertheless hindered by fundamental limitations in the employed manufacturing techniques. Here, we show a novel method to fabricate FZPs based on multilayer deposition with atomic layer deposition (ALD) and subsequent sectioning with focused ion beam (FIB). For the first time a multilayer FZP working in the soft X-ray range was prepared and could achieve the best resolution obtained so far for multilayer FZPs by resolving features below 39nm in size in a scanning soft X-ray microscope. The new technique presents high potential for high resolution microscopy in both the soft and hard X-ray range.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Mayer
- Max-Planck-Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstr. 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
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45
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Weber T, Käsebier T, Szeghalmi A, Knez M, Kley EB, Tünnermann A. Iridium wire grid polarizer fabricated using atomic layer deposition. NANOSCALE RESEARCH LETTERS 2011; 6:558. [PMID: 22023700 PMCID: PMC3213227 DOI: 10.1186/1556-276x-6-558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2011] [Accepted: 10/25/2011] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
In this work, an effective multistep process toward fabrication of an iridium wire grid polarizer for UV applications involving a frequency doubling process based on ultrafast electron beam lithography and atomic layer deposition is presented. The choice of iridium as grating material is based on its good optical properties and a superior oxidation resistance. Furthermore, atomic layer deposition of iridium allows a precise adjustment of the structural parameters of the grating much better than other deposition techniques like sputtering for example. At the target wavelength of 250 nm, a transmission of about 45% and an extinction ratio of 87 are achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Weber
- Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Institute of Applied Physics, Max-Wien-Platz 1, 07749 Jena, Germany
| | - Thomas Käsebier
- Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Institute of Applied Physics, Max-Wien-Platz 1, 07749 Jena, Germany
| | - Adriana Szeghalmi
- Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Institute of Applied Physics, Max-Wien-Platz 1, 07749 Jena, Germany
- Max-Planck-Institute of Microstructure Physics, Weinberg 2, 06120 Halle, Germany
| | - Mato Knez
- Max-Planck-Institute of Microstructure Physics, Weinberg 2, 06120 Halle, Germany
| | - Ernst-Bernhard Kley
- Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Institute of Applied Physics, Max-Wien-Platz 1, 07749 Jena, Germany
| | - Andreas Tünnermann
- Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Institute of Applied Physics, Max-Wien-Platz 1, 07749 Jena, Germany
- Fraunhofer Institute for Applied Optics and Precision Engineering, Albert-Einstein-Straße 7, 07745 Jena, Germany
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46
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Vila-Comamala J, Diaz A, Guizar-Sicairos M, Mantion A, Kewish CM, Menzel A, Bunk O, David C. Characterization of high-resolution diffractive X-ray optics by ptychographic coherent diffractive imaging. OPTICS EXPRESS 2011; 19:21333-21344. [PMID: 22108984 DOI: 10.1364/oe.19.021333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
We have employed ptychographic coherent diffractive imaging to completely characterize the focal spot wavefield and wavefront aberrations of a high-resolution diffractive X-ray lens. The ptychographic data from a strongly scattering object was acquired using the radiation cone emanating from a coherently illuminated Fresnel zone plate at a photon energy of 6.2 keV. Reconstructed images of the object were retrieved with a spatial resolution of 8 nm by combining the difference-map phase retrieval algorithm with a non-linear optimization refinement. By numerically propagating the reconstructed illumination function, we have obtained the X-ray wavefield profile of the 23 nm round focus of the Fresnel zone plate (outermost zone width, Δr = 20 nm) as well as the X-ray wavefront at the exit pupil of the lens. The measurements of the wavefront aberrations were repeatable to within a root mean square error of 0.006 waves, and we demonstrate that they can be related to manufacturing aspects of the diffractive optical element and to errors on the incident X-ray wavefront introduced by the upstream beamline optics.
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Regvar M, Eichert D, Kaulich B, Gianoncelli A, Pongrac P, Vogel-Mikuš K, Kreft I. New insights into globoids of protein storage vacuoles in wheat aleurone using synchrotron soft X-ray microscopy. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2011; 62:3929-39. [PMID: 21447756 PMCID: PMC3134349 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/err090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2011] [Revised: 03/03/2011] [Accepted: 03/04/2011] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Mature developed seeds are physiologically and biochemically committed to store nutrients, principally as starch, protein, oils, and minerals. The composition and distribution of elements inside the aleurone cell layer reflect their biogenesis, structural characteristics, and physiological functions. It is therefore of primary importance to understand the mechanisms underlying metal ion accumulation, distribution, storage, and bioavailability in aleurone subcellular organelles for seed fortification purposes. Synchrotron radiation soft X-ray full-field imaging mode (FFIM) and low-energy X-ray fluorescence (LEXRF) spectromicroscopy were applied to characterize major structural features and the subcellular distribution of physiologically important elements (Zn, Fe, Na, Mg, Al, Si, and P). These direct imaging methods reveal the accumulation patterns between the apoplast and symplast, and highlight the importance of globoids with phytic acid mineral salts and walls as preferential storage structures. C, N, and O chemical topographies are directly linked to the structural backbone of plant substructures. Zn, Fe, Na, Mg, Al, and P were linked to globoid structures within protein storage vacuoles with variable levels of co-localization. Si distribution was atypical, being contained in the aleurone apoplast and symplast, supporting a physiological role for Si in addition to its structural function. These results reveal that the immobilization of metals within the observed endomembrane structures presents a structural and functional barrier and affects bioavailability. The combination of high spatial and chemical X-ray microscopy techniques highlights how in situ analysis can yield new insights into the complexity of the wheat aleurone layer, whose precise biochemical composition, morphology, and structural characteristics are still not unequivocally resolved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjana Regvar
- Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Diane Eichert
- Sincrotrone Trieste, S.S. 14, km 163.5 in Area Science Park, I-34149 Trieste, Italy
| | - Burkhard Kaulich
- Sincrotrone Trieste, S.S. 14, km 163.5 in Area Science Park, I-34149 Trieste, Italy
| | | | - Paula Pongrac
- Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Katarina Vogel-Mikuš
- Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Ivan Kreft
- Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Vila-Comamala J, Gorelick S, Färm E, Kewish CM, Diaz A, Barrett R, Guzenko VA, Ritala M, David C. Ultra-high resolution zone-doubled diffractive X-ray optics for the multi-keV regime. OPTICS EXPRESS 2011; 19:175-184. [PMID: 21263555 DOI: 10.1364/oe.19.000175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
X-ray microscopy based on Fresnel zone plates is a powerful technique for sub-100 nm resolution imaging of biological and inorganic materials. Here, we report on the modeling, fabrication and characterization of zone-doubled Fresnel zone plates for the multi-keV regime (4-12 keV). We demonstrate unprecedented spatial resolution by resolving 15 nm lines and spaces in scanning transmission X-ray microscopy, and focusing diffraction efficiencies of 7.5% at 6.2 keV photon energy. These developments represent a significant step towards 10 nm spatial resolution for hard X-ray energies of up to 12 keV.
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Hämäläinen J, Hatanpää T, Puukilainen E, Sajavaara T, Ritala M, Leskelä M. Iridium metal and iridium oxide thin films grown by atomic layer deposition at low temperatures. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1039/c1jm12245b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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50
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Nakamura T, Chang C. Exact space invariant illumination for partially coherent imaging systems. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2010; 27:1953-1961. [PMID: 20808402 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.27.001953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
What we believe to be a new illumination scheme that achieves space invariance and permits analytical determination of the image intensity distribution is proposed for partially coherent imaging systems. No additional lenses are needed for phase correction in front of the object and no restriction on illumination coherence is required. Conditions on the axial placement of the condenser with respect to the source and the object are specifically derived in terms of the condenser focal length and the distance from the object to the objective lens. By attaining space invariance, this new illumination scheme permits the use of transfer functions without approximation on illumination coherence. In addition, this illumination method establishes an exact Fourier transform relationship between the illumination and source mutual intensities, and thus significantly simplifies the analysis. Comparison with Köhler illumination is also presented. This apparatus is especially favorable for x-ray microscopy where lenses in this spectral region typically have a low efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Nakamura
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Health Systems, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
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