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Barreda L, Brosse C, Boutet S, Perreau F, Rajjou L, Lepiniec L, Corso M. Specialized metabolite modifications in Brassicaceae seeds and plants: diversity, functions and related enzymes. Nat Prod Rep 2024; 41:834-859. [PMID: 38323463 DOI: 10.1039/d3np00043e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2024]
Abstract
Covering: up to 2023Specialized metabolite (SM) modifications and/or decorations, corresponding to the addition or removal of functional groups (e.g. hydroxyl, methyl, glycosyl or acyl group) to SM structures, contribute to the huge diversity of structures, activities and functions of seed and plant SMs. This review summarizes available knowledge (up to 2023) on SM modifications in Brassicaceae and their contribution to SM plasticity. We give a comprehensive overview on enzymes involved in the addition or removal of these functional groups. Brassicaceae, including model (Arabidopsis thaliana) and crop (Brassica napus, Camelina sativa) plant species, present a large diversity of plant and seed SMs, which makes them valuable models to study SM modifications. In this review, particular attention is given to the environmental plasticity of SM and relative modification and/or decoration enzymes. Furthermore, a spotlight is given to SMs and related modification enzymes in seeds of Brassicaceae species. Seeds constitute a large reservoir of beneficial SMs and are one of the most important dietary sources, providing more than half of the world's intake of dietary proteins, oil and starch. The seed tissue- and stage-specific expressions of A. thaliana genes involved in SM modification are presented and discussed in the context of available literature. Given the major role in plant phytochemistry, biology and ecology, SM modifications constitute a subject of study contributing to the research and development in agroecology, pharmaceutical, cosmetics and food industrial sectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Léa Barreda
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin (IJPB), 78000 Versailles, France.
| | - Céline Brosse
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin (IJPB), 78000 Versailles, France.
| | - Stéphanie Boutet
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin (IJPB), 78000 Versailles, France.
| | - François Perreau
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin (IJPB), 78000 Versailles, France.
| | - Loïc Rajjou
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin (IJPB), 78000 Versailles, France.
| | - Loïc Lepiniec
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin (IJPB), 78000 Versailles, France.
| | - Massimiliano Corso
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin (IJPB), 78000 Versailles, France.
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Wu X, Yang M, Liu C, Kuang R, He H, Zhou C, Wei Y. Transcriptome, Plant Hormone, and Metabolome Analysis Reveals the Mechanism of Purple Pericarp Formation in 'Zihui' Papaya ( Carica papaya L.). Molecules 2024; 29:1485. [PMID: 38611765 PMCID: PMC11013584 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29071485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2024] [Revised: 03/19/2024] [Accepted: 03/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The color of the pericarp is a crucial characteristic that influences the marketability of papaya fruit. Prior to ripening, normal papaya exhibits a green pericarp, whereas the cultivar 'Zihui' displays purple ring spots on the fruit tip, which significantly affects the fruit's visual appeal. To understand the mechanism behind the formation of purple pericarp, this study performed a thorough examination of the transcriptome, plant hormone, and metabolome. Based on the UPLC-ESI-MS/MS system, a total of 35 anthocyanins and 11 plant hormones were identified, with 27 anthocyanins and two plant hormones exhibiting higher levels of abundance in the purple pericarp. In the purple pericarp, 14 anthocyanin synthesis genes were up-regulated, including CHS, CHI, F3H, F3'5'H, F3'H, ANS, OMT, and CYP73A. Additionally, through co-expression network analysis, three MYBs were identified as potential key regulators of anthocyanin synthesis by controlling genes encoding anthocyanin biosynthesis. As a result, we have identified numerous key genes involved in anthocyanin synthesis and developed new insights into how the purple pericarp of papaya is formed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Chenping Zhou
- Institute of Fruit Tree Research, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of South Subtropical Fruit Biology and Genetic Resource Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Fruit Tree Research, Guangzhou 510640, China; (X.W.)
| | - Yuerong Wei
- Institute of Fruit Tree Research, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of South Subtropical Fruit Biology and Genetic Resource Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Fruit Tree Research, Guangzhou 510640, China; (X.W.)
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Wu J, Zhang J, Hao X, Lv K, Xie Y, Xu W. Establishment of an efficient callus transient transformation system for Vitis vinifera cv. 'Chardonnay'. PROTOPLASMA 2024; 261:351-366. [PMID: 37906315 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-023-01901-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023]
Abstract
Grape (Vitis L.), a highly valued fruit crop, poses significant challenges in genetic transformation and functional characterization of genes. Therefore, there is an urgent need for the development of a rapid and effective method for grape transformation and gene function identification. Here, we introduce a streamlined Agrobacterium-mediated transient transformation system for grape calli. Optimal conditions were established with a leaf-derived callus induction medium; chiefly B5 medium supplemented with 0.05 mg/L NAA, 0.5 mg/L 2,4-D, and 2.0 mg/L KT; and a callus proliferation medium (B5 medium supplemented with 0.5 mg/L NAA and 2.0 mg/L 6-BA), respectively. Notably, GUS enzyme activity peaked (352.96 ± 33.95 mol 4-MU/mg/min) by sonication with Agrobacterium tumefaciens EHA105 and 100 μM AS for 4 min, followed by vacuum infection for 5 min, and co-culture at 25 °C in the dark for 1 day using callus as explants at an optical density (OD600) of 0.8. VaCIPK18 gene was transiently transformed into calli, and transcripts of the gene (endogenous and exogenous) were detected at higher levels than in non-transformed calli (endogenous). Moreover, after 10 days of treatment at 4 °C or -4 °C, the callus net weight of transformed callus was significantly higher than that of the untransformed callus, indicating that the VaCIPK18-overexpressing grape callus could improve cold tolerance. Overall, we establish a simple but effective transient transformation approach for grape callus, which could serve as a useful tool for the rapid assessment of gene function in this important crop.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jieping Wu
- College of Enology and Horticulture, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, 750021, Ningxia, China
- Engineering Research Center of Grape and Wine, Ministry of Education, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, 750021, Ningxia, China
- Key Laboratory of Modern Molecular Breeding for Dominant and Special Crops in Ningxia, Yinchuan, 750021, China
| | - Junxia Zhang
- College of Enology and Horticulture, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, 750021, Ningxia, China
- Engineering Research Center of Grape and Wine, Ministry of Education, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, 750021, Ningxia, China
- Key Laboratory of Modern Molecular Breeding for Dominant and Special Crops in Ningxia, Yinchuan, 750021, China
| | - Xinyi Hao
- College of Enology and Horticulture, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, 750021, Ningxia, China
- Engineering Research Center of Grape and Wine, Ministry of Education, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, 750021, Ningxia, China
- Key Laboratory of Modern Molecular Breeding for Dominant and Special Crops in Ningxia, Yinchuan, 750021, China
| | - Kai Lv
- College of Enology and Horticulture, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, 750021, Ningxia, China
- Engineering Research Center of Grape and Wine, Ministry of Education, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, 750021, Ningxia, China
- Key Laboratory of Modern Molecular Breeding for Dominant and Special Crops in Ningxia, Yinchuan, 750021, China
| | - Yaping Xie
- College of Enology and Horticulture, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, 750021, Ningxia, China
- Engineering Research Center of Grape and Wine, Ministry of Education, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, 750021, Ningxia, China
- Key Laboratory of Modern Molecular Breeding for Dominant and Special Crops in Ningxia, Yinchuan, 750021, China
| | - Weirong Xu
- College of Enology and Horticulture, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, 750021, Ningxia, China.
- Engineering Research Center of Grape and Wine, Ministry of Education, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, 750021, Ningxia, China.
- Key Laboratory of Modern Molecular Breeding for Dominant and Special Crops in Ningxia, Yinchuan, 750021, China.
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Wang Y, Shang B, Génard M, Hilbert-Masson G, Delrot S, Gomès E, Poni S, Keller M, Renaud C, Kong J, Chen J, Liang Z, Dai Z. Model-assisted analysis for tuning anthocyanin composition in grape berries. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2023; 132:1033-1050. [PMID: 37850481 PMCID: PMC10808033 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcad165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/19/2023]
Abstract
Anthocyanin composition is responsible for the red colour of grape berries and wines, and contributes to their organoleptic quality. However, anthocyanin biosynthesis is under genetic, developmental and environmental regulation, making its targeted fine-tuning challenging. We constructed a mechanistic model to simulate the dynamics of anthocyanin composition throughout grape ripening in Vitis vinifera, employing a consensus anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway. The model was calibrated and validated using six datasets from eight cultivars and 37 growth conditions. Tuning the transformation and degradation parameters allowed us to accurately simulate the accumulation process of each individual anthocyanin under different environmental conditions. The model parameters were robust across environments for each genotype. The coefficients of determination (R2) for the simulated versus observed values for the six datasets ranged from 0.92 to 0.99, while the relative root mean square errors (RRMSEs) were between 16.8 and 42.1 %. The leave-one-out cross-validation for three datasets showed R2 values of 0.99, 0.96 and 0.91, and RRMSE values of 28.8, 32.9 and 26.4 %, respectively, suggesting a high prediction quality of the model. Model analysis showed that the anthocyanin profiles of diverse genotypes are relatively stable in response to parameter perturbations. Virtual experiments further suggested that targeted anthocyanin profiles may be reached by manipulating a minimum of three parameters, in a genotype-dependent manner. This model presents a promising methodology for characterizing the temporal progression of anthocyanin composition, while also offering a logical foundation for bioengineering endeavours focused on precisely adjusting the anthocyanin composition of grapes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongjian Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Diversity and Specialty Crops and Beijing Key Laboratory of Grape Science and Enology, Institute of Botany, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100093, China
- China National Botanical Garden, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Boxing Shang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Diversity and Specialty Crops and Beijing Key Laboratory of Grape Science and Enology, Institute of Botany, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100093, China
- China National Botanical Garden, Beijing 100093, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Michel Génard
- INRAE, UR1115, Unité Plantes et Systèmes de Culture Horticoles, Avignon, France
| | | | - Serge Delrot
- EGFV, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux-Sciences Agro, INRAE, ISVV, Villenave d’Ornon, France
| | - Eric Gomès
- EGFV, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux-Sciences Agro, INRAE, ISVV, Villenave d’Ornon, France
| | - Stefano Poni
- Department of Sustainable Crop Production, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via Emilia Parmense 84, 29122 Piacenza, Italy
| | - Markus Keller
- Department of Viticulture and Enology, Irrigated Agriculture Research and Extension Center, Washington State University, Prosser, WA, USA
| | - Christel Renaud
- EGFV, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux-Sciences Agro, INRAE, ISVV, Villenave d’Ornon, France
| | - Junhua Kong
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Diversity and Specialty Crops and Beijing Key Laboratory of Grape Science and Enology, Institute of Botany, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100093, China
- China National Botanical Garden, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Jinliang Chen
- Center for Agricultural Water Research in China, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Zhenchang Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Diversity and Specialty Crops and Beijing Key Laboratory of Grape Science and Enology, Institute of Botany, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100093, China
- China National Botanical Garden, Beijing 100093, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zhanwu Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Diversity and Specialty Crops and Beijing Key Laboratory of Grape Science and Enology, Institute of Botany, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100093, China
- China National Botanical Garden, Beijing 100093, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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Wei X, Li L, Xu L, Zeng L, Xu J. Genome-wide identification of the AOMT gene family in wax apple and functional characterization of SsAOMTs to anthocyanin methylation. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1213642. [PMID: 37822338 PMCID: PMC10562569 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1213642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023]
Abstract
Introduction Anthocyanins are major pigments in the peels of red-series wax apple fruits, and two principal components of them, namely, the cyanin and the peonidin, are non-methoxylated and methoxylated anthocyanins, respectively. Anthocyanin O-methyltransferases (AOMTs) are an important group of enzymes that have the ability to catalyze anthocyanins methylation to promote the solubility, stability, and bioactivity of anthocyanins. Although AOMT genes have been studied in a variety of plants, the function of them in wax apple is generally not well understood. Methods The anthocyanin composition in peels of two wax apple cultivars was determined by High Performance Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry (HPLS-MS). The genome-wide analysis of the AOMT genes was performed with bioinformatics technology, and the expression patterns of different plant tissues, cultivars, fruit ripening stages, and exogenous abscisic acid (ABA) treatments were analyzed by transcriptome sequencing analysis and real-time quantitative PCR verification. An initial functional evaluation was carried out in vitro using recombinant the Anthocyanin O-methyltransferase Gene 5 of S. samarangense (SsAOMT5) protein. Results Only two main compositions of anthocyanin were found in peels of two wax apple cultivars, and it was worth noting that Tub Ting Jiang cultivar contained non-methoxylated anthocyanin (Cy3G) only, whereas Daye cultivar contained both non-methoxylated and methoxylated (Pn3G) anthocyanins. A total of six SsAOMT genes were identified in the whole genome of wax apple, randomly distributing on three chromosomes. A phylogenic analysis of the protein sequences divided the SsAOMT gene family into three subgroups, and all SsAOMTs had highly conserved domains of AOMT family. In total, four types of stress- related and five types of hormone- related cis-elements were discovered in the promoter region of the SsAOMTs. Expression pattern analysis showed that SsAOMT5 and SsAOMT6 were expressed in all tissues to varying degrees; notably, the expression of SsAOMT5 was high in the flower and fruit and significantly higher in Daye peels than those of other cultivars in the fruit ripening period. Exogenous ABA treatment significantly increased anthocyanin accumulation, but the increase of methoxylated anthocyanin content did not reach significant level compared with those without ABA treatment, whereas the expression of SsAOMT5 upregulated under ABA treatment. We identified two homologous SsAOMT5 genes from Daye cultivar (DSsAOMT5) and Tub Ting Jiang cultivar (TSsAOMT5); the results of functional analyses to two SsAOMT5 recombinant proteins in vitro demonstrated that DSsAOMT5 showed methylation modification activity, but TSsAOMT5 did not. Conclusion In conclusion, SsAOMT5 was responsible for methylated anthocyanin accumulation in the peels of wax apple and played an important role in red coloration in wax apple peels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuqing Wei
- College of Horticulture, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- Fruit Research Institute, Fujian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Liang Li
- Fruit Research Institute, Fujian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Ling Xu
- Fruit Research Institute, Fujian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Lihui Zeng
- College of Horticulture, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Jiahui Xu
- Fruit Research Institute, Fujian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
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Gamel TH, Saeed SMG, Ali R, Abdel-Aal ESM. Purple Wheat: Food Development, Anthocyanin Stability, and Potential Health Benefits. Foods 2023; 12:foods12071358. [PMID: 37048178 PMCID: PMC10093297 DOI: 10.3390/foods12071358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Colored wheats such as black, blue, or purple wheat are receiving a great interest as healthy food ingredients due to their potential health-enhancing attributes. Purple wheat is an anthocyanin-pigmented grain that holds huge potential in food applications since wheat is the preferred source of energy and protein in human diet. Purple wheat is currently processed into a variety of foods with potent antioxidant properties, which have been demonstrated by in vitro studies. However, the health impacts of purple wheat foods in humans still require further investigations. Meanwhile, anthocyanins are vulnerable molecules that require special stabilization treatments during food preparation and processing. A number of stabilization methods such as co-pigmentation, self-association, encapsulation, metal binding, and adjusting processing conditions have been suggested as a means to diminish the loss of anthocyanins in processed foods and dietary supplements. The present review was intended to provide insights about purple wheat food product development and its roles in human health. In addition, methods for stabilizing anthocyanins during processing were briefly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamer H Gamel
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 93 Stone Road West, Guelph, ON N1G 5C9, Canada
| | | | - Rashida Ali
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
| | - El-Sayed M Abdel-Aal
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 93 Stone Road West, Guelph, ON N1G 5C9, Canada
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Peng XQ, Ai YJ, Pu YT, Wang XJ, Li YH, Wang Z, Zhuang WB, Yu BJ, Zhu ZQ. Transcriptome and metabolome analyses reveal molecular mechanisms of anthocyanin-related leaf color variation in poplar ( Populus deltoides) cultivars. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1103468. [PMID: 36909390 PMCID: PMC9998943 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1103468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Colored-leaf plants are increasingly popular for their aesthetic, ecological, and social value, which are important materials for research on the regulation of plant pigments. However, anthocyanin components and the molecular mechanisms of anthocyanin biosynthesis in colored-leaf poplar remain unclear. Consequently, an integrative analysis of transcriptome and metabolome is performed to identify the key metabolic pathways and key genes, which could contribute to the molecular mechanism of anthocyanin biosynthesis in the colored-leaf cultivars poplar. METHODS In this study, integrated metabolite and transcriptome analysis was performed to explore the anthocyanin composition and the specific regulatory network of anthocyanin biosynthesis in the purple leaves of the cultivars 'Quanhong' (QHP) and 'Zhongshanyuan' (ZSY). Correlation analysis between RNA-seq data and metabolite profiles were also performed to explore the candidate genes associated with anthocyanin biosynthesis. R2R3-MYB and bHLH TFs with differential expression levels were used to perform a correlation analysis with differentially accumulated anthocyanins. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A total of 39 anthocyanin compounds were detected by LC-MS/MS analysis. Twelve cyanidins, seven pelargonidins, five delphinidins, and five procyanidins were identified as the major anthocyanin compounds, which were differentially accumulated in purple leaves of QHP and ZSY. The major genes associated with anthocyanin biosynthesis, including structural genes and transcription factors, were differentially expressed in purple leaves of QHP and ZSY through RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) data analysis, which was consistent with quantitative real-time PCR analysis results. Correlation analysis between RNA-seq data and metabolite profiles showed that the expression patterns of certain differentially expressed genes in the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway were strongly correlated with the differential accumulation of anthocyanins. One R2R3-MYB subfamily member in the SG5 subgroup, Podel.04G021100, showed a similar expression pattern to some structural genes. This gene was strongly correlated with 16 anthocyanin compounds, indicating that Podel.04G021100 might be involved in the regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis. These results contribute to a systematic and comprehensive understanding of anthocyanin accumulation and to the molecular mechanisms of anthocyanin biosynthesis in QHP and ZSY.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Qian Peng
- College of Tea Science, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Yu Jie Ai
- College of Tea Science, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Yu Ting Pu
- College of Tea Science, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Xiao Jing Wang
- College of Tea Science, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Yu Hang Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for the Research and Utilization of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Jiangsu Province and Chinese Academy of Sciences (Nanjing Botanical Garden Mem. Sun Yat-Sen), Nanjing, China
| | - Zhong Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for the Research and Utilization of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Jiangsu Province and Chinese Academy of Sciences (Nanjing Botanical Garden Mem. Sun Yat-Sen), Nanjing, China
| | - Wei Bing Zhuang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for the Research and Utilization of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Jiangsu Province and Chinese Academy of Sciences (Nanjing Botanical Garden Mem. Sun Yat-Sen), Nanjing, China
- Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
- Laizhou, Ornamental Research Center, Hongshun Plum Planting Technology Co., Ltd, Yantai, China
| | - Bing Jun Yu
- Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhi Qi Zhu
- Laizhou, Ornamental Research Center, Hongshun Plum Planting Technology Co., Ltd, Yantai, China
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Xu Y, Liu X, Huang Y, Xia Z, Lian Z, Qian L, Yan S, Cao B, Qiu Z. Ethylene Inhibits Anthocyanin Biosynthesis by Repressing the R2R3-MYB Regulator SlAN2-like in Tomato. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23147648. [PMID: 35887009 PMCID: PMC9316371 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23147648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Revised: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Fruit ripening is usually accompanied by anthocyanin accumulation. Ethylene is key in ripening-induced anthocyanin production in many fruits. However, the effects of fruit ripening and ethylene on anthocyanin biosynthesis in purple tomato fruits are unclear. This study shows that bagged fruits of the purple tomato cultivar ‘Indigo Rose’ failed to produce anthocyanins at the red ripening stage after bag removal. In contrast, the bagged immature fruits accumulated a significant amount of anthocyanins after removing the bags. The transcriptomic analyses between immature and red ripening fruit before and after bag removal revealed that anthocyanin-related genes, including the key positive R2R3-MYB regulator SlAN2-like, were repressed in the red ripening fruit. The 86 identified transcription factors, including 13 AP2/ERF, 7 bZIP, 8 bHLH and 6 MYB, showed significantly different expressions between immature and red ripening fruits. Moreover, subjecting bagged immature fruits to exogenous ethylene treatment significantly inhibited anthocyanin accumulation and the expression of anthocyanin-related genes, including the anthocyanin structure genes and SlAN2-like. Thus, ethylene inhibits anthocyanin biosynthesis by repressing the transcription of SlAN2-like and other anthocyanin-related genes. These findings provide new insights into anthocyanin regulation in purple tomato fruit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulian Xu
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops (South China), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Vegetable Engineering and Technology Research Center, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Y.X.); (Y.H.); (Z.X.); (Z.L.); (L.Q.); (S.Y.)
| | - Xiaoxi Liu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of New Technology Research of Vegetable, Vegetable Research Institute, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China;
| | - Yinggemei Huang
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops (South China), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Vegetable Engineering and Technology Research Center, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Y.X.); (Y.H.); (Z.X.); (Z.L.); (L.Q.); (S.Y.)
| | - Zhilei Xia
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops (South China), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Vegetable Engineering and Technology Research Center, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Y.X.); (Y.H.); (Z.X.); (Z.L.); (L.Q.); (S.Y.)
| | - Zilin Lian
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops (South China), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Vegetable Engineering and Technology Research Center, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Y.X.); (Y.H.); (Z.X.); (Z.L.); (L.Q.); (S.Y.)
| | - Lijuan Qian
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops (South China), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Vegetable Engineering and Technology Research Center, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Y.X.); (Y.H.); (Z.X.); (Z.L.); (L.Q.); (S.Y.)
| | - Shuangshuang Yan
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops (South China), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Vegetable Engineering and Technology Research Center, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Y.X.); (Y.H.); (Z.X.); (Z.L.); (L.Q.); (S.Y.)
| | - Bihao Cao
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops (South China), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Vegetable Engineering and Technology Research Center, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Y.X.); (Y.H.); (Z.X.); (Z.L.); (L.Q.); (S.Y.)
- Correspondence: (B.C.); (Z.Q.); Tel.: +86-20-8528-0228 (Z.Q. & B.C.)
| | - Zhengkun Qiu
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops (South China), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Vegetable Engineering and Technology Research Center, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Y.X.); (Y.H.); (Z.X.); (Z.L.); (L.Q.); (S.Y.)
- Correspondence: (B.C.); (Z.Q.); Tel.: +86-20-8528-0228 (Z.Q. & B.C.)
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Buhrman K, Aravena-Calvo J, Ross Zaulich C, Hinz K, Laursen T. Anthocyanic Vacuolar Inclusions: From Biosynthesis to Storage and Possible Applications. Front Chem 2022; 10:913324. [PMID: 35836677 PMCID: PMC9273883 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2022.913324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability of plants to accumulate specific metabolites in concentrations beyond their solubility in both aqueous and lipid environments remains a key question in plant biology. Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents (NADES) are mixtures of natural compounds in specific molar ratios, which interact through hydrogen bonding. This results in a viscous liquid that can solubilize high amounts of natural products while maintaining a negligible vapor pressure to prevent release of volatile compounds. While all the components are presents in plant cells, identifying experimental evidence for the occurrence of NADES phases remains a challenging quest. Accumulation of anthocyanin flavonoids in highly concentrated inclusions have been speculated to involve NADES as an inert solvent. The inherent pigment properties of anthocyanins provide an ideal system for studying the formation of NADES in a cellular environment. In this mini-review we discuss the biosynthesis of modified anthocyanins that facilitate their organization in condensates, their transport and storage as a specific type of phase separated inclusions in the vacuole, and the presence of NADES constituents as a natural solution for storing high amounts of flavonoids and other natural products. Finally, we highlight how the knowledge gathered from studying the discussed processes could be used for specific applications within synthetic biology to utilize NADES derived compartments for the production of valuable compounds where the production is challenged by poor solubility, toxic intermediates or unstable and volatile products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kees Buhrman
- Faculty of Science, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Dynamic Metabolons Group, Section for Plant Biochemistry, Department for Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Javiera Aravena-Calvo
- Dynamic Metabolons Group, Section for Plant Biochemistry, Department for Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Clara Ross Zaulich
- Dynamic Metabolons Group, Section for Plant Biochemistry, Department for Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kasper Hinz
- Dynamic Metabolons Group, Section for Plant Biochemistry, Department for Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Tomas Laursen
- Dynamic Metabolons Group, Section for Plant Biochemistry, Department for Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- *Correspondence: Tomas Laursen,
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10
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Wong DCJ, Perkins J, Peakall R. Anthocyanin and Flavonol Glycoside Metabolic Pathways Underpin Floral Color Mimicry and Contrast in a Sexually Deceptive Orchid. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:860997. [PMID: 35401591 PMCID: PMC8983864 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.860997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Sexually deceptive plants secure pollination by luring specific male insects as pollinators using a combination of olfactory, visual, and morphological mimicry. Flower color is a key component to this attraction, but its chemical and genetic basis remains poorly understood. Chiloglottis trapeziformis is a sexually deceptive orchid which has predominantly dull green-red flowers except for the central black callus projecting from the labellum lamina. The callus mimics the female of the pollinator and the stark color contrast between the black callus and dull green or red lamina is thought to enhance the visibility of the mimic. The goal of this study was to investigate the chemical composition and genetic regulation of temporal and spatial color patterns leading to visual mimicry, by integrating targeted metabolite profiling and transcriptomic analysis. Even at the very young bud stage, high levels of anthocyanins were detected in the dark callus, with peak accumulation by the mature bud stage. In contrast, anthocyanin levels in the lamina peaked as the buds opened and became reddish-green. Coordinated upregulation of multiple genes, including dihydroflavonol reductase and leucoanthocyanidin dioxygenase, and the downregulation of flavonol synthase genes (FLS) in the callus at the very young bud stage underpins the initial high anthocyanin levels. Conversely, within the lamina, upregulated FLS genes promote flavonol glycoside over anthocyanin production, with the downstream upregulation of flavonoid O-methyltransferase genes further contributing to the accumulation of methylated flavonol glycosides, whose levels peaked in the mature bud stage. Finally, the peak anthocyanin content of the reddish-green lamina of the open flower is underpinned by small increases in gene expression levels and/or differential upregulation in the lamina in select anthocyanin genes while FLS patterns showed little change. Differential expression of candidate genes involved in specific transport, vacuolar acidification, and photosynthetic pathways may also assist in maintaining the distinct callus and contrasting lamina color from the earliest bud stage through to the mature flower. Our findings highlight that flower color in this sexually deceptive orchid is achieved by complex tissue-specific coordinated regulation of genes and biochemical pathways across multiple developmental stages.
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11
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Diversification of Chemical Structures of Methoxylated Flavonoids and Genes Encoding Flavonoid-O-Methyltransferases. PLANTS 2022; 11:plants11040564. [PMID: 35214897 PMCID: PMC8876552 DOI: 10.3390/plants11040564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Revised: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The O-methylation of specialized metabolites in plants is a unique decoration that provides structural and functional diversity of the metabolites with changes in chemical properties and intracellular localizations. The O-methylation of flavonoids, which is a class of plant specialized metabolites, promotes their antimicrobial activities and liposolubility. Flavonoid O-methyltransferases (FOMTs), which are responsible for the O-methylation process of the flavonoid aglycone, generally accept a broad range of substrates across flavones, flavonols and lignin precursors, with different substrate preferences. Therefore, the characterization of FOMTs with the physiology roles of methoxylated flavonoids is useful for crop improvement and metabolic engineering. In this review, we summarized the chemodiversity and physiology roles of methoxylated flavonoids, which were already reported, and we performed a cross-species comparison to illustrate an overview of diversification and conserved catalytic sites of the flavonoid O-methyltransferases.
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12
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Lu S, Zhuge Y, Hao T, Liu Z, Zhang M, Fang J. Systematic analysis reveals O-methyltransferase gene family members involved in flavonoid biosynthesis in grape. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2022; 173:33-45. [PMID: 35093693 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2022.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
O-methyltransferases (OMTs) are an important group of enzymes involved in the methylation of various secondary metabolites, including flavonoids. However, the features and functions of OMTs have not been comprehensively studied in grape (Vitis vinifera), a rich source of methylated flavonoids. Here, 47 OMT members were identified in grape genome. They were unevenly distributed on grape chromosomes and some genes were tandem duplicated, indicating the role of duplication processes in the expansion of this gene family. Based on the phylogenetic relationship, these OMTs were clustered into CCoAOMT and COMT subclades, which were further supported by the results of conserved motif and gene structure analysis. Correlation analysis revealed that three members (VvCCoAOMT1, VvCCoAOMT4, and VvCOMT1) were potentially involved in the synthesis of most methylated flavonoids in the berry skins. Expression profiling based on RNA-seq data and qRT-PCR experiments indicated that VvCCoAOMT1 and VvCCoAOMT4 had specific and high expression in berry skins, and responded to abscisic acid and high temperature treatments; and that VvCOMT1 expression was significantly induced during berry development and UVC treatment. Cis-regulatory element analysis suggested important roles of OMTs in growth, development, and defense against stresses. We further demonstrated the transcriptional regulation of VvCCoAOMT4 by VvMYBA1, a master regulator of grape berry anthocyanin, and verified the protein localization of VvCCoAOMT4 in membrane and nucleus. These findings facilitate a better understanding of the characteristics of OMT gene family, especially of the potential members involved in the formation of O-methylated flavonoids in grape.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suwen Lu
- College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China.
| | - Yaxian Zhuge
- College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Tianyi Hao
- College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhongjie Liu
- College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Mengwei Zhang
- College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jinggui Fang
- College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China.
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13
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Development and genetic analysis of conspicuous purple coloured corolla lip flower with multicapsules genotype in sesame (Sesamum indicum L.). J Genet 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12041-021-01335-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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14
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Berardi AE, Esfeld K, Jäggi L, Mandel T, Cannarozzi GM, Kuhlemeier C. Complex evolution of novel red floral color in Petunia. THE PLANT CELL 2021; 33:2273-2295. [PMID: 33871652 PMCID: PMC8364234 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koab114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Red flower color has arisen multiple times and is generally associated with hummingbird pollination. The majority of evolutionary transitions to red color proceeded from purple lineages and tend to be genetically simple, almost always involving a few loss-of-function mutations of major phenotypic effect. Here we report on the complex evolution of a novel red floral color in the hummingbird-pollinated Petunia exserta (Solanaceae) from a colorless ancestor. The presence of a red color is remarkable because the genus cannot synthesize red anthocyanins and P. exserta retains a nonfunctional copy of the key MYB transcription factor AN2. We show that moderate upregulation and a shift in tissue specificity of an AN2 paralog, DEEP PURPLE, restores anthocyanin biosynthesis in P. exserta. An essential shift in anthocyanin hydroxylation occurred through rebalancing the expression of three hydroxylating genes. Furthermore, the downregulation of an acyltransferase promotes reddish hues in typically purple pigments by preventing acyl group decoration of anthocyanins. This study presents a rare case of a genetically complex evolutionary transition toward the gain of a novel red color.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea E. Berardi
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern 3013, Switzerland
| | - Korinna Esfeld
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern 3013, Switzerland
| | - Lea Jäggi
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern 3013, Switzerland
| | - Therese Mandel
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern 3013, Switzerland
| | | | - Cris Kuhlemeier
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern 3013, Switzerland
- Author for correspondence:
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15
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Shi J, Simal-Gandara J, Mei J, Ma W, Peng Q, Shi Y, Xu Q, Lin Z, Lv H. Insight into the pigmented anthocyanins and the major potential co-pigmented flavonoids in purple-coloured leaf teas. Food Chem 2021; 363:130278. [PMID: 34118756 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.130278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Revised: 05/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Tea cultivars possessing purple shoots have attracted global interest. In order to gain a better understanding of the major chemical constituents responsible for the purple colouration, we applied widely targeted metabolomics to investigate the pigmented flavonoids of freeze-dried purple-coloured tea leaves (PTLs) in comparison with green-coloured tea leaves (GTLs). Thirty-three anthocyanins were identified, and delphinidin 3-O-galactoside and cyanidin 3-O-galactoside were found to be the most abundant in PTLs. A total of 226 metabolites including 193 flavonoids and 33 tannins were identified, and the methylated, acylated, and glycosylated flavonoids differed significantly between PTLs and GTLs. Moreover, significant differences (p < 0.01) in the average anthocyanin, flavonoid, chlorophyll and catechin contents were also observed. Four PTLs were found to contain high levels of (-)-epigallocatechin-3-(3″-O-methyl) gallate (>10 mg/g). These results suggest that structurally modified anthocyanins and major potential co-pigmented flavonoids are the chemicals primarily responsible for the purple colouration of the tea leaves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiang Shi
- Key Laboratory of Tea Biology and Resource Utilization of Ministry of Agriculture, Tea Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310008, China
| | - Jesus Simal-Gandara
- Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Department of Analytical Chemistry and Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo - Ourense Campus, E-32004 Ourense, Spain
| | - Jufen Mei
- Wuxi Institute of Tea Varieties Co., Ltd., Wuxi 214125, China
| | - Wanjun Ma
- Key Laboratory of Tea Biology and Resource Utilization of Ministry of Agriculture, Tea Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310008, China; Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Qunhua Peng
- Key Laboratory of Tea Biology and Resource Utilization of Ministry of Agriculture, Tea Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310008, China
| | - Yali Shi
- Key Laboratory of Tea Biology and Resource Utilization of Ministry of Agriculture, Tea Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310008, China; Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Qi Xu
- Wuxi Institute of Tea Varieties Co., Ltd., Wuxi 214125, China
| | - Zhi Lin
- Key Laboratory of Tea Biology and Resource Utilization of Ministry of Agriculture, Tea Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310008, China.
| | - Haipeng Lv
- Key Laboratory of Tea Biology and Resource Utilization of Ministry of Agriculture, Tea Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310008, China.
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16
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Chatham LA, Juvik JA. Linking anthocyanin diversity, hue, and genetics in purple corn. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2021; 11:jkaa062. [PMID: 33585872 PMCID: PMC8022952 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkaa062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
While maize with anthocyanin-rich pericarp (purple corn) is rising in popularity as a source of natural colorant for foods and beverages, information on color range and stability-factors associated with anthocyanin decorations and compositional profiles-is currently limited. Furthermore, to maximize the scalability and meet growing demands, both anthocyanin concentrations and agronomic performance must improve in purple corn varieties. Using the natural anthocyanin diversity present in a purple corn landrace, Apache Red, we generated a population with variable flavonoid profiles-flavanol-anthocyanin condensed forms (0-83%), acylated anthocyanins (2-72%), pelargonidin-derived anthocyanins (5-99%), C-glycosyl flavone co-pigments up to 1904 µg/g, and with anthocyanin content up to 1598 µg/g. Each aspect of the flavonoid profiles was found to play a role in either the resulting extract hue or intensity. With genotyping-by-sequencing of this population, we mapped aspects of the flavonoid profile. Major quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for anthocyanin type were found near loci previously identified only in aleurone-pigmented maize varieties [Purple aleurone1 (Pr1) and Anthocyanin acyltransferase1 (Aat1)]. A QTL near P1 (Pericarp color1) was found for both flavone content and flavanol-anthocyanin condensed forms. A significant QTL associated with peonidin-derived anthocyanins near a candidate S-adenosylmethionine-dependent methyltransferase was also identified, warranting further investigation. Mapping total anthocyanin content produced signals near Aat1, the aleurone-associated bHLH R1 (Colored1), the plant color-associated MYB, Pl1 (Purple plant1), the aleurone-associated recessive intensifier, In1 (Intensifier1), and several previously unidentified candidates. This population represents one of the most anthocyanin diverse pericarp-pigmented maize varieties characterized to date. Moreover, the candidates identified here will serve as branching points for future research studying the genetic and molecular processes determining anthocyanin profile in pericarp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura A Chatham
- Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, Champaign, IL 61801, USA
| | - John A Juvik
- Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, Champaign, IL 61801, USA
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17
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Shi Q, Du J, Zhu D, Li X, Li X. Metabolomic and Transcriptomic Analyses of Anthocyanin Biosynthesis Mechanisms in the Color Mutant Ziziphus jujuba cv. Tailihong. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:15186-15198. [PMID: 33300333 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c05334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The purplish-red color of "Tailihong" jujube fruit skins is caused primarily by anthocyanin accumulation, but the mechanisms that underlie anthocyanin biosynthesis in jujube fruit have rarely been studied. We performed metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses of jujube fruit skins at different developmental stages and identified a total of 158 flavonoids, among which cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside and peonidin-3,5-O-diglucoside were the primary anthocyanins. During fruit development and maturation, the anthocyanin content was strongly correlated with the expression of ZjANS and ZjUGT79B1, suggesting that these are key genes in the anthocyanin biosynthesis process. Transcriptomic analysis indicated that the transcription factors ZjMYB5, ZjTT8, and ZjWDR3 regulated anthocyanin biosynthesis in jujube fruit skins. Subcellular localization experiments confirmed that ZjANS and ZjUGT79B1 were localized to the nucleus and the endoplasmic reticulum. ZjMYB5 and ZjTT8 were found only in the nucleus, whereas strong fluorescence signals from ZjWDR3 were observed in the nucleus and cytoplasm. Prokaryotic expression and in vitro enzyme activity assays showed that the recombinant ZjANS protein catalyzed the formation of cyanidin from (+)-catechin. Secondary glycosylation by ZjUFGT79B1 modified cyanidin-3-O-glucoside to produce cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside, and ZjCCoAOMT readily catalyzed the production of the methylated anthocyanin peonidin-3,5-O-diglucoside from cyanidin 3,5-O-glucoside. Dual-Luciferase and GUS activity assays showed that the ZjANS and ZjUGT79B1 promoters were activated by ZjMYB5, ZjTT8, and ZjWDR3. All data indicated that these three transcription factors played important roles in anthocyanin biosynthesis in the color mutant Ziziphus jujuba cv. Tailihong, contributing to anthocyanin accumulation by enhancing the expression of ZjANS and ZjUGT79B1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qianqian Shi
- College of Forestry, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, Shaanxi, China
- Key Comprehensive Laboratory of Forestry of Shaanxi Province, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jiangtao Du
- College of Forestry, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, Shaanxi, China
- Key Comprehensive Laboratory of Forestry of Shaanxi Province, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Dajun Zhu
- College of Forestry, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, Shaanxi, China
- Key Comprehensive Laboratory of Forestry of Shaanxi Province, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xi Li
- College of Forestry, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, Shaanxi, China
- Key Comprehensive Laboratory of Forestry of Shaanxi Province, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xingang Li
- College of Forestry, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, Shaanxi, China
- Key Comprehensive Laboratory of Forestry of Shaanxi Province, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, Shaanxi, China
- Research Center for Jujube Engineering and Technology of State Forestry Administration, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, Shaanxi, China
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18
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Jiang L, Fan Z, Tong R, Zhou X, Li J, Yin H. Functional Diversification of the Dihydroflavonol 4-Reductase from Camellia nitidissima Chi. in the Control of Polyphenol Biosynthesis. Genes (Basel) 2020; 11:E1341. [PMID: 33198369 PMCID: PMC7696568 DOI: 10.3390/genes11111341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Revised: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Plant secondary metabolism is complex in its diverse chemical composition and dynamic regulation of biosynthesis. How the functional diversification of enzymes contributes to the diversity is largely unknown. In the flavonoids pathway, dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR) is a key enzyme mediating dihydroflavanol into anthocyanins biosynthesis. Here, the DFR homolog was identified from Camellia nitidissima Chi. (CnDFR) which is a unique species of the genus Camellia with golden yellow petals. Sequence analysis showed that CnDFR possessed not only conserved catalytic domains, but also some amino acids peculiar to Camellia species. Gene expression analysis revealed that CnDFR was expressed in all tissues and the expression of CnDFR was positively correlated with polyphenols but negatively with yellow coloration. The subcellular localization of CnDFR by the tobacco infiltration assay showed a likely dual localization in the nucleus and cell membrane. Furthermore, overexpression transgenic lines were generated in tobacco to understand the molecular function of CnDFR. The analyses of metabolites suggested that ectopic expression of CnDFR enhanced the biosynthesis of polyphenols, while no accumulation of anthocyanins was detected. These results indicate a functional diversification of the reductase activities in Camellia plants and provide molecular insights into the regulation of floral color.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Research Institute of Subtropical Forestry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Hangzhou 311400, China; (L.J.); (Z.F.); (R.T.)
- Key Laboratory of Forest Genetics and Breeding, Research Institute of Subtropical Forestry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Hangzhou 311400, China
| | - Zhengqi Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Research Institute of Subtropical Forestry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Hangzhou 311400, China; (L.J.); (Z.F.); (R.T.)
- Key Laboratory of Forest Genetics and Breeding, Research Institute of Subtropical Forestry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Hangzhou 311400, China
| | - Ran Tong
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Research Institute of Subtropical Forestry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Hangzhou 311400, China; (L.J.); (Z.F.); (R.T.)
| | - Xingwen Zhou
- College of Biology and Pharmacy, Yulin Normal University, Yulin 537000, China;
| | - Jiyuan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Research Institute of Subtropical Forestry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Hangzhou 311400, China; (L.J.); (Z.F.); (R.T.)
| | - Hengfu Yin
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Research Institute of Subtropical Forestry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Hangzhou 311400, China; (L.J.); (Z.F.); (R.T.)
- Key Laboratory of Forest Genetics and Breeding, Research Institute of Subtropical Forestry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Hangzhou 311400, China
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19
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Alseekh S, Perez de Souza L, Benina M, Fernie AR. The style and substance of plant flavonoid decoration; towards defining both structure and function. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2020; 174:112347. [PMID: 32203741 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2020.112347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2020] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Over 8000 different flavonoids have been described and a considerable number of new flavonoid structures are being elucidated every year. The advent of metabolomics alongside the development of phytochemical genetics - wherein the genetic basis underlying the regulation of the levels of plant metabolites is determined - has provided a massive boost to such efforts. That said our understanding of the individual function(s) of the vast majority of the metabolites that constitute this important class of phytochemicals remains unknown. Here we review what is known concerning the major decorative modifications of flavonoids in plants, namely hydroxylation, glycosylation, methylation and acylation. Our major focus is with regard to the in planta function of these modified compounds, however, we also highlight the demonstrated bioactive roles which they possess. We additionally performed a comprehensive survey of the flavonoids listed in the KNApSAcK database in order to assess the frequency of occurrence of each type of flavonoid modification. We conclude that whilst considerable research has been carried out regarding the biological roles of flavonoids most studies to date have merely provided information on the compound class or sub-classes thereof as a whole with too little currently known on the specific role of individual metabolites. We, therefore, finally suggest a framework based on currently available tools by which the relative importance of the individual compounds can be assessed under various biological conditions in order to fill this knowledge-gap.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saleh Alseekh
- Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476, Potsdam-Golm, Germany; Center of Plant Systems Biology and Biotechnology, 4000, Plovdiv, Bulgaria
| | - Leonardo Perez de Souza
- Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476, Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Maria Benina
- Center of Plant Systems Biology and Biotechnology, 4000, Plovdiv, Bulgaria
| | - Alisdair R Fernie
- Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476, Potsdam-Golm, Germany; Center of Plant Systems Biology and Biotechnology, 4000, Plovdiv, Bulgaria.
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20
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Roberts WR, Roalson EH. Co-expression clustering across flower development identifies modules for diverse floral forms in Achimenes (Gesneriaceae). PeerJ 2020; 8:e8778. [PMID: 32201652 PMCID: PMC7071821 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Genetic pathways involved with flower color and shape are thought to play an important role in the development of flowers associated with different pollination syndromes, such as those associated with bee, butterfly, or hummingbird pollination. Because pollination syndromes are complex traits that are orchestrated by multiple genes and pathways, the gene regulatory networks have not been explored. Gene co-expression networks provide a systems level approach to identify important contributors to floral diversification. METHODS RNA-sequencing was used to assay gene expression across two stages of flower development (an early bud and an intermediate stage) in 10 species of Achimenes (Gesneriaceae). Two stage-specific co-expression networks were created from 9,503 orthologs and analyzed to identify module hubs and the network periphery. Module association with bee, butterfly, and hummingbird pollination syndromes was tested using phylogenetic mixed models. The relationship between network connectivity and evolutionary rates (d N/d S) was tested using linear models. RESULTS Networks contained 65 and 62 modules that were largely preserved between developmental stages and contained few stage-specific modules. Over a third of the modules in both networks were associated with flower color, shape, and pollination syndrome. Within these modules, several hub nodes were identified that related to the production of anthocyanin and carotenoid pigments and the development of flower shape. Evolutionary rates were decreased in highly connected genes and elevated in peripheral genes. DISCUSSION This study aids in the understanding of the genetic architecture and network properties underlying the development of floral form and provides valuable candidate modules and genes for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wade R. Roberts
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
- Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA
| | - Eric H. Roalson
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
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Chatham LA, Paulsmeyer M, Juvik JA. Prospects for economical natural colorants: insights from maize. TAG. THEORETICAL AND APPLIED GENETICS. THEORETISCHE UND ANGEWANDTE GENETIK 2019; 132:2927-2946. [PMID: 31451836 DOI: 10.1007/s00122-019-03414-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Anthocyanin pigments from maize offer a natural yet economical alternative to artificial dyes. Breeding for optimal colorant production requires understanding and integrating all facets of anthocyanin chemistry and genetics research. Replacing artificial dyes with natural colorants is becoming increasingly popular in foods and beverages. However, natural colorants are often expensive, have lower stability, and reduced variability in hue. Purple corn is rich in anthocyanins and offers a scalable and affordable alternative to synthetic dyes ranging in color from orange to reddish-purple. This diversity is attributable to differences in anthocyanin composition and concentration. Here we review the chemistry, biosynthesis, and genetics of purple corn and outline key factors associated with the feasibility of producing an economical source of natural colorants. Anthocyanin compositional modifications including acylation, methylation, and polymerization with flavan-3-ols can influence color stability and hue, yet there is more to learn regarding the genetic factors responsible for these modifications. Activators and repressors of anthocyanin biosynthesis structural genes as well as factors controlling trafficking and storage largely control anthocyanin yield. Further knowledge of these mechanisms will allow breeders to apply molecular strategies that accelerate the production of purple corn hybrids to meet growing demands for natural colorants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura A Chatham
- University of Illinois Urbana Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61802, USA
| | | | - John A Juvik
- University of Illinois Urbana Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61802, USA.
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Zhang S, Zhang A, Wu X, Zhu Z, Yang Z, Zhu Y, Zha D. Transcriptome analysis revealed expression of genes related to anthocyanin biosynthesis in eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) under high-temperature stress. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 19:387. [PMID: 31492114 PMCID: PMC6729041 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-019-1960-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2018] [Accepted: 08/01/2019] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Anthocyanin synthesis is affected by many factors, among which temperature is an important environmental factor. Eggplant is usually exposed to high temperatures during the cultivation season in Shanghai, China. Therefore,RNA -seq analysis was used to determine the effects of high-temperature stress on gene expression in the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway of eggplant (Solanum melongena L.). RESULTS We tested the heat-resistant cultivar 'Tewangda'. The plants were incubated at 38 °C and 45 °C, and the suitable temperature for eggplant growth was used as a control. The treatment times were 3 h and 6 h. The skin of the eggplant was taken for transcriptome sequencing, qRT-PCR assays and bioinformatic analysis. The results showed that 770 genes were differentially expressed between different treatments. Gene Ontology (GO) database and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database analyses identified 16 genes related to anthocyanin biosynthesis, among which CHSB was upregulated. Other genes, including BHLH62, MYB380, CHI3, CHI, CCOAOMT, AN3, ACT-2, HST, 5MA-T1, CYP75A2, ANT17, RT, PAL2, and anthocyanin 5-aromatic acyltransferase were downregulated. In addition, the Myb family transcription factor PHL11 was upregulated in the CK 3 h vs 45 °C 3 h, CK 3 h vs 38 °C 3 h, and CK 6 h vs 38 °C 6 h comparisons, and the transcription factor bHLH35 was upregulated in the CK 3 h vs 38 °C 3 h and CK 6 h vs 38 °C 6 h comparisons. CONCLUSION These results indicated that high temperature will downregulate most of the genes in the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway of eggplant. Our data have a reference value for the heat resistance mechanism of eggplant and can provide directions for molecular breeding of heat-resistant germplasm with anthocyanin content in eggplant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengmei Zhang
- Horticultural Research Institute, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Shanghai, 201403 China
- College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095 China
| | - Aidong Zhang
- Horticultural Research Institute, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Shanghai, 201403 China
| | - Xuexia Wu
- Horticultural Research Institute, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Shanghai, 201403 China
| | - Zongwen Zhu
- Horticultural Research Institute, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Shanghai, 201403 China
| | - Zuofen Yang
- Horticultural Research Institute, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Shanghai, 201403 China
| | - Yuelin Zhu
- College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095 China
| | - Dingshi Zha
- Horticultural Research Institute, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Shanghai, 201403 China
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Zhang H, Koes R, Shang H, Fu Z, Wang L, Dong X, Zhang J, Passeri V, Li Y, Jiang H, Gao J, Li Y, Wang H, Quattrocchio FM. Identification and functional analysis of three new anthocyanin R2R3-MYB genes in Petunia. PLANT DIRECT 2019; 3:e00114. [PMID: 31245756 PMCID: PMC6508765 DOI: 10.1002/pld3.114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 12/26/2018] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
We identified three novel members of the R2R3-MYB clade of anthocyanin regulators in the genome of the purple flowering Petunia inflata S6 wild accession, and we called them ANTHOCYANIN SYNTHESIS REGULATOR (ASR). Two of these genes, ASR1 and ASR2, are inactivated by two different single base mutations in their coding sequence. All three of these genes are absent in the white flowering species P. axillaris N and P. parodii, in the red flowering P. exserta, and in several Petunia hybrida lines, including R27 and W115. P. violacea and other P. hybrida lines (M1, V30, and W59) instead harbor functional copies of the ASR genes. Comparative, functional and phylogenic analysis of anthocyanin R2R3-MYB genes strongly suggest that the ASR genes cluster is a duplication of the genomic fragment containing the other three R2R3-MYB genes with roles in pigmentation that were previously defined, the ANTHOCYANIN4-DEEP PURPLE-PURPLE HAZE (AN4-DPL-PHZ) cluster. An investigation of the genomic fragments containing anthocyanin MYBs in different Petunia accessions reveals that massive rearrangements have taken place, resulting in large differences in the regions surrounding these genes, even in closely related species. Yeast two-hybrid assays showed that the ASR proteins can participate in the WMBW (WRKY, MYB, B-HLH, and WDR) anthocyanin regulatory complex by interacting with the transcription factors AN1 and AN11. All three ASRs can induce anthocyanin synthesis when ectopically expressed in P. hybrida lines, but ASR1 appeared to be the most effective. The expression patterns of ASR1 and ASR2 cover several different petunia tissues with higher expression at early stages of bud development. In contrast, ASR3 is only weakly expressed in the stigma, ovary, and anther filaments. The characterization of these novel ASR MYB genes completes the picture of the MYB members of the petunia anthocyanin regulatory MBW complex and suggests possible mechanisms of the diversification of pigmentation patterns during plant evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hechen Zhang
- Horticulture Research InstituteHenan Academy of Agricultural SciencesZhengzhouChina
| | - Ronald Koes
- Department of Plant Development and (Epi) GeneticsSwammerdam Institute for Life SciencesUniversity of AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Hongquan Shang
- Horticulture Research InstituteHenan Academy of Agricultural SciencesZhengzhouChina
| | - Zhenzhu Fu
- Horticulture Research InstituteHenan Academy of Agricultural SciencesZhengzhouChina
| | - Limin Wang
- Horticulture Research InstituteHenan Academy of Agricultural SciencesZhengzhouChina
| | - Xiaoyu Dong
- Horticulture Research InstituteHenan Academy of Agricultural SciencesZhengzhouChina
| | - Jing Zhang
- Horticulture Research InstituteHenan Academy of Agricultural SciencesZhengzhouChina
| | - Valentina Passeri
- Department of Plant Development and (Epi) GeneticsSwammerdam Institute for Life SciencesUniversity of AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Yanbang Li
- Department of Plant ScienceSchool of Agriculture and BiologyShanghai Jiao Tong UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Hui Jiang
- Horticulture Research InstituteHenan Academy of Agricultural SciencesZhengzhouChina
| | - Jie Gao
- Horticulture Research InstituteHenan Academy of Agricultural SciencesZhengzhouChina
| | - Yanmin Li
- Horticulture Research InstituteHenan Academy of Agricultural SciencesZhengzhouChina
| | - Huijuan Wang
- Horticulture Research InstituteHenan Academy of Agricultural SciencesZhengzhouChina
| | - Francesca M. Quattrocchio
- Department of Plant Development and (Epi) GeneticsSwammerdam Institute for Life SciencesUniversity of AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
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Okitsu N, Mizuno T, Matsui K, Choi SH, Tanaka Y. Molecular cloning of flavonoid biosynthetic genes and biochemical characterization of anthocyanin O-methyltransferase of Nemophila menziesii Hook. and Arn. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY (TOKYO, JAPAN) 2018; 35:9-16. [PMID: 31275032 PMCID: PMC6543731 DOI: 10.5511/plantbiotechnology.18.0104a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Blue flower color of Nemophila menziesii Hook. and Arn. is derived from a metalloanthocyanin, nemophilin, which comprises petunidin-3-O-[6-O-(trans-p-coumaroyl)-β-glucoside]-5-O-[6-O-(malonyl)-β-glucoside], apigenin-7-O-β-glucoside-4'-O-(6-O-malonyl)-β-glucoside, and Mg2+ and Fe3+ ions. The flavonoid biosynthetic pathway of nemophilin has not yet been characterized. RNA-Seq analysis of the petals yielded 61,491 contigs. These were searched using BLAST against petunia or torenia flavonoid biosynthetic proteins, which identified 11 putative full-length protein sequences belonging to the flavonoid biosynthetic pathway. RT-PCR using primers designed on the basis of these sequences yielded 14 sequences. Spatio-temporal transcriptome analysis indicated that genes involved in the early part of the pathway are strongly expressed during early-petal development and that those in the late part at late-flower opening stages, but they are rarely expressed in leaves. Flavanone 3-hydroxylase and flavonoid 3',5'-hydroxylase cDNAs were successfully expressed in yeast to confirm their activities. Recombinant anthocyanin O-methyltransferase cDNA (NmAMT6) produced using Escherichia coli was subjected to biochemical characterization. Km of NmAMT6 toward delphinidin 3-O-glucoside was 22 µM, which is comparable with Km values of anthocyanin O-methyltransferases from other plants. With delphinidin 3-O-glucoside as substrate, NmAMT6 almost exclusively yielded petunidin 3-O-glucoside rather than malvidin 3-O-glucoside. This specificity is consistent with the anthocyanin composition of Nemophila petals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoko Okitsu
- Research Institute, Suntory Global Innovation Center Ltd., Soraku-Gun, Kyoto 619-0284, Japan
| | - Takayuki Mizuno
- Department of Botany, National Museum of Nature and Science, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0005, Japan
| | - Keisuke Matsui
- Research Institute, Suntory Global Innovation Center Ltd., Soraku-Gun, Kyoto 619-0284, Japan
| | - Sun Hee Choi
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-8589, Japan
| | - Yoshikazu Tanaka
- Research Institute, Suntory Global Innovation Center Ltd., Soraku-Gun, Kyoto 619-0284, Japan
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25
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Variation in levels of the flavone tricin in bran from rice genotypes varying in pericarp color. J Cereal Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcs.2017.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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26
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Okitsu N, Noda N, Chandler S, Tanaka Y. Flower Color and Its Engineering by Genetic Modification. HANDBOOK OF PLANT BREEDING 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-90698-0_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Cress BF, Leitz QD, Kim DC, Amore TD, Suzuki JY, Linhardt RJ, Koffas MAG. CRISPRi-mediated metabolic engineering of E. coli for O-methylated anthocyanin production. Microb Cell Fact 2017; 16:10. [PMID: 28095853 PMCID: PMC5240198 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-016-0623-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Accepted: 12/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Anthocyanins are a class of brightly colored, glycosylated flavonoid pigments that imbue their flower and fruit host tissues with hues of predominantly red, orange, purple, and blue. Although all anthocyanins exhibit pH-responsive photochemical changes, distinct structural decorations on the core anthocyanin skeleton also cause dramatic color shifts, in addition to improved stabilities and unique pharmacological properties. In this work, we report for the first time the extension of the reconstituted plant anthocyanin pathway from (+)-catechin to O-methylated anthocyanins in a microbial production system, an effort which requires simultaneous co-option of the endogenous metabolites UDP-glucose and S-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAM or AdoMet). Results Anthocyanin O-methyltransferase (AOMT) orthologs from various plant sources were co-expressed in Escherichia coli with Petunia hybrida anthocyanidin synthase (PhANS) and Arabidopsis thaliana anthocyanidin 3-O-glucosyltransferase (At3GT). Vitis vinifera AOMT (VvAOMT1) and fragrant cyclamen ‘Kaori-no-mai’ AOMT (CkmOMT2) were found to be the most effective AOMTs for production of the 3′-O-methylated product peonidin 3-O-glucoside (P3G), attaining the highest titers at 2.4 and 2.7 mg/L, respectively. Following modulation of plasmid copy number and optimization of VvAOMT1 and CkmOMT2 expression conditions, production was further improved to 23 mg/L using VvAOMT1. Finally, CRISPRi was utilized to silence the transcriptional repressor MetJ in order to deregulate the methionine biosynthetic pathway and improve SAM availability for O-methylation of cyanidin 3-O-glucoside (C3G), the biosynthetic precursor to P3G. MetJ repression led to a final titer of 51 mg/L (56 mg/L upon scale-up to shake flask), representing a twofold improvement over the non-targeting CRISPRi control strain and 21-fold improvement overall. Conclusions An E. coli strain was engineered for production of the specialty anthocyanin P3G using the abundant and comparatively inexpensive flavonol precursor, (+)-catechin. Furthermore, dCas9-mediated transcriptional repression of metJ alleviated a limiting SAM pool size, enhancing titers of the methylated anthocyanin product. While microbial production of P3G and other O-methylated anthocyanin pigments will likely be valuable to the food industry as natural food and beverage colorants, we expect that the strain constructed here will also prove useful to the ornamental plant industry as a platform for evaluating putative anthocyanin O-methyltransferases in pursuit of bespoke flower pigment compositions. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12934-016-0623-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brady F Cress
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Biotech 4005D, 110 8th Street, Troy, NY, 12180, USA
| | - Quentin D Leitz
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Biotech 4005D, 110 8th Street, Troy, NY, 12180, USA
| | - Daniel C Kim
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Biotech 4005D, 110 8th Street, Troy, NY, 12180, USA
| | - Teresita D Amore
- Department of Tropical Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Hawaii, 3190 Maile Way, Honolulu, HI, 96822, USA
| | - Jon Y Suzuki
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Daniel K. Inouye U.S. Pacific Basin Agricultural Research Center, Hilo, HI, 96720, USA
| | - Robert J Linhardt
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Biotech 4005D, 110 8th Street, Troy, NY, 12180, USA.,Department of Biological Sciences, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, 12180, USA.,Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, 12180, USA
| | - Mattheos A G Koffas
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Biotech 4005D, 110 8th Street, Troy, NY, 12180, USA. .,Department of Biological Sciences, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, 12180, USA.
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Rahmadi A, Puspita Y, Nursayekti D, Sintia Sinaga I, Oktalina R, Setiawan H, Murdianto W. ANALISIS PROKSIMAT, SENYAWA FENOLIK, SIFAT ANTIOKSIDAN DAN ANTIBAKTERI KULIT BUAH Lepisanthes alata. JURNAL TEKNOLOGI DAN INDUSTRI PANGAN 2016. [DOI: 10.6066/jtip.2016.27.2.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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Passeri V, Koes R, Quattrocchio FM. New Challenges for the Design of High Value Plant Products: Stabilization of Anthocyanins in Plant Vacuoles. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2016; 7:153. [PMID: 26909096 PMCID: PMC4754442 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.00153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/29/2016] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
In the last decade plant biotechnologists and breeders have made several attempt to improve the antioxidant content of plant-derived food. Most efforts concentrated on increasing the synthesis of antioxidants, in particular anthocyanins, by inducing the transcription of genes encoding the synthesizing enzymes. We present here an overview of economically interesting plant species, both food crops and ornamentals, in which anthocyanin content was improved by traditional breeding or transgenesis. Old genetic studies in petunia and more recent biochemical work in brunfelsia, have shown that after synthesis and compartmentalization in the vacuole, anthocyanins need to be stabilized to preserve the color of the plant tissue over time. The final yield of antioxidant molecules is the result of the balance between synthesis and degradation. Therefore the understanding of the mechanism that determine molecule stabilization in the vacuolar lumen is the next step that needs to be taken to further improve the anthocyanin content in food. In several species a phenomenon known as fading is responsible for the disappearance of pigmentation which in some case can be nearly complete. We discuss the present knowledge about the genetic and biochemical factors involved in pigment preservation/destabilization in plant cells. The improvement of our understanding of the fading process will supply new tools for both biotechnological approaches and marker-assisted breeding.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Francesca M. Quattrocchio
- Plant Development and (Epi)Genetics, Swammerdam Institute of Life Sciences, University of AmsterdamAmsterdam, Netherlands
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30
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Shaipulah NFM, Muhlemann JK, Woodworth BD, Van Moerkercke A, Verdonk JC, Ramirez AA, Haring MA, Dudareva N, Schuurink RC. CCoAOMT Down-Regulation Activates Anthocyanin Biosynthesis in Petunia. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2016; 170:717-31. [PMID: 26620524 PMCID: PMC4734575 DOI: 10.1104/pp.15.01646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2015] [Accepted: 11/25/2015] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Anthocyanins and volatile phenylpropenes (isoeugenol and eugenol) in petunia (Petunia hybrida) flowers have the precursor 4-coumaryl coenzyme A (CoA) in common. These phenolics are produced at different stages during flower development. Anthocyanins are synthesized during early stages of flower development and sequestered in vacuoles during the lifespan of the flowers. The production of isoeugenol and eugenol starts when flowers open and peaks after anthesis. To elucidate additional biochemical steps toward (iso)eugenol production, we cloned and characterized a caffeoyl-coenzyme A O-methyltransferase (PhCCoAOMT1) from the petals of the fragrant petunia 'Mitchell'. Recombinant PhCCoAOMT1 indeed catalyzed the methylation of caffeoyl-CoA to produce feruloyl CoA. Silencing of PhCCoAOMT1 resulted in a reduction of eugenol production but not of isoeugenol. Unexpectedly, the transgenic plants had purple-colored leaves and pink flowers, despite the fact that cv Mitchell lacks the functional R2R3-MYB master regulator ANTHOCYANIN2 and has normally white flowers. Our results indicate that down-regulation of PhCCoAOMT1 activated the anthocyanin pathway through the R2R3-MYBs PURPLE HAZE (PHZ) and DEEP PURPLE, with predominantly petunidin accumulating. Feeding cv Mitchell flowers with caffeic acid induced PHZ expression, suggesting that the metabolic perturbation of the phenylpropanoid pathway underlies the activation of the anthocyanin pathway. Our results demonstrate a role for PhCCoAOMT1 in phenylpropene production and reveal a link between PhCCoAOMT1 and anthocyanin production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nur Fariza M Shaipulah
- Department of Plant Physiology, University of Amsterdam, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands (N.F.M.S., A.V.M., A.A.R., M.A.H., R.C.S.);Pusat Pengajian Sains Marin dan Sekitaran, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia (N.F.M.S.);Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2063 (J.K.M., B.D.W., N.D.); andHorticulture and Product Physiology, Plant Sciences Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands 6700 AA (J.C.V.)
| | - Joëlle K Muhlemann
- Department of Plant Physiology, University of Amsterdam, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands (N.F.M.S., A.V.M., A.A.R., M.A.H., R.C.S.);Pusat Pengajian Sains Marin dan Sekitaran, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia (N.F.M.S.);Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2063 (J.K.M., B.D.W., N.D.); andHorticulture and Product Physiology, Plant Sciences Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands 6700 AA (J.C.V.)
| | - Benjamin D Woodworth
- Department of Plant Physiology, University of Amsterdam, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands (N.F.M.S., A.V.M., A.A.R., M.A.H., R.C.S.);Pusat Pengajian Sains Marin dan Sekitaran, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia (N.F.M.S.);Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2063 (J.K.M., B.D.W., N.D.); andHorticulture and Product Physiology, Plant Sciences Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands 6700 AA (J.C.V.)
| | - Alex Van Moerkercke
- Department of Plant Physiology, University of Amsterdam, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands (N.F.M.S., A.V.M., A.A.R., M.A.H., R.C.S.);Pusat Pengajian Sains Marin dan Sekitaran, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia (N.F.M.S.);Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2063 (J.K.M., B.D.W., N.D.); andHorticulture and Product Physiology, Plant Sciences Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands 6700 AA (J.C.V.)
| | - Julian C Verdonk
- Department of Plant Physiology, University of Amsterdam, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands (N.F.M.S., A.V.M., A.A.R., M.A.H., R.C.S.);Pusat Pengajian Sains Marin dan Sekitaran, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia (N.F.M.S.);Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2063 (J.K.M., B.D.W., N.D.); andHorticulture and Product Physiology, Plant Sciences Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands 6700 AA (J.C.V.)
| | - Aldana A Ramirez
- Department of Plant Physiology, University of Amsterdam, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands (N.F.M.S., A.V.M., A.A.R., M.A.H., R.C.S.);Pusat Pengajian Sains Marin dan Sekitaran, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia (N.F.M.S.);Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2063 (J.K.M., B.D.W., N.D.); andHorticulture and Product Physiology, Plant Sciences Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands 6700 AA (J.C.V.)
| | - Michel A Haring
- Department of Plant Physiology, University of Amsterdam, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands (N.F.M.S., A.V.M., A.A.R., M.A.H., R.C.S.);Pusat Pengajian Sains Marin dan Sekitaran, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia (N.F.M.S.);Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2063 (J.K.M., B.D.W., N.D.); andHorticulture and Product Physiology, Plant Sciences Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands 6700 AA (J.C.V.)
| | - Natalia Dudareva
- Department of Plant Physiology, University of Amsterdam, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands (N.F.M.S., A.V.M., A.A.R., M.A.H., R.C.S.);Pusat Pengajian Sains Marin dan Sekitaran, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia (N.F.M.S.);Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2063 (J.K.M., B.D.W., N.D.); andHorticulture and Product Physiology, Plant Sciences Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands 6700 AA (J.C.V.)
| | - Robert C Schuurink
- Department of Plant Physiology, University of Amsterdam, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands (N.F.M.S., A.V.M., A.A.R., M.A.H., R.C.S.);Pusat Pengajian Sains Marin dan Sekitaran, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia (N.F.M.S.);Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2063 (J.K.M., B.D.W., N.D.); andHorticulture and Product Physiology, Plant Sciences Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands 6700 AA (J.C.V.)
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Amato A, Cavallini E, Zenoni S, Finezzo L, Begheldo M, Ruperti B, Tornielli GB. A Grapevine TTG2-Like WRKY Transcription Factor Is Involved in Regulating Vacuolar Transport and Flavonoid Biosynthesis. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2016; 7:1979. [PMID: 28105033 PMCID: PMC5214514 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.01979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
A small set of TTG2-like homolog proteins from different species belonging to the WRKY family of transcription factors were shown to share a similar mechanism of action and to control partially conserved biochemical/developmental processes in their native species. In particular, by activating P-ATPases residing on the tonoplast, PH3 from Petunia hybrida promotes vacuolar acidification in petal epidermal cells whereas TTG2 from Arabidopsis thaliana enables the accumulation of proanthocyanidins in the seed coat. In this work we functionally characterized VvWRKY26 identified as the closest grapevine homolog of PhPH3 and AtTTG2. When constitutively expressed in petunia ph3 mutant, VvWRKY26 can fulfill the PH3 function in the regulation of vacuolar pH and restores the wild type pigmentation phenotype. By a global correlation analysis of gene expression and by transient over-expression in Vitis vinifera, we showed transcriptomic relationships of VvWRKY26 with many genes related to vacuolar acidification and transport in grapevine. Moreover, our results indicate an involvement in flavonoid pathway possibly restricted to the control of proanthocyanidin biosynthesis that is consistent with its expression pattern in grape berry tissues. Overall, the results show that, in addition to regulative mechanisms and biological roles shared with TTG2-like orthologs, VvWRKY26 can play roles in fleshy fruit development that have not been previously reported in studies from dry fruit species. This study paves the way toward the comprehension of the regulatory network controlling vacuolar acidification and flavonoid accumulation mechanisms that contribute to the final berry quality traits in grapevine.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Erika Cavallini
- Department of Biotechnology, University of VeronaVerona, Italy
| | - Sara Zenoni
- Department of Biotechnology, University of VeronaVerona, Italy
| | - Laura Finezzo
- Department of Biotechnology, University of VeronaVerona, Italy
| | - Maura Begheldo
- Department of Agriculture, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment, University of PadovaPadova, Italy
| | - Benedetto Ruperti
- Department of Agriculture, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment, University of PadovaPadova, Italy
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Prinsi B, Negri AS, Quattrocchio FM, Koes RE, Espen L. Proteomics of red and white corolla limbs in petunia reveals a novel function of the anthocyanin regulator ANTHOCYANIN1 in determining flower longevity. J Proteomics 2016; 131:38-47. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2015.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2015] [Revised: 09/23/2015] [Accepted: 10/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Du H, Wu J, Ji KX, Zeng QY, Bhuiya MW, Su S, Shu QY, Ren HX, Liu ZA, Wang LS. Methylation mediated by an anthocyanin, O-methyltransferase, is involved in purple flower coloration in Paeonia. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2015; 66:6563-77. [PMID: 26208646 PMCID: PMC4623676 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erv365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Anthocyanins are major pigments in plants. Methylation plays a role in the diversity and stability of anthocyanins. However, the contribution of anthocyanin methylation to flower coloration is still unclear. We identified two homologous anthocyanin O-methyltransferase (AOMT) genes from purple-flowered (PsAOMT) and red-flowered (PtAOMT) Paeonia plants, and we performed functional analyses of the two genes in vitro and in vivo. The critical amino acids for AOMT catalytic activity were studied by site-directed mutagenesis. We showed that the recombinant proteins, PsAOMT and PtAOMT, had identical substrate preferences towards anthocyanins. The methylation activity of PsAOMT was 60 times higher than that of PtAOMT in vitro. Interestingly, this vast difference in catalytic activity appeared to result from a single amino acid residue substitution at position 87 (arginine to leucine). There were significant differences between the 35S::PsAOMT transgenic tobacco and control flowers in relation to their chromatic parameters, which further confirmed the function of PsAOMT in vivo. The expression levels of the two homologous AOMT genes were consistent with anthocyanin accumulation in petals. We conclude that AOMTs are responsible for the methylation of cyanidin glycosides in Paeonia plants and play an important role in purple coloration in Paeonia spp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Du
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources/ Beijing Botanical Garden, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, PR China
| | - Jie Wu
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources/ Beijing Botanical Garden, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, PR China University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, PR China
| | - Kui-Xian Ji
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources/ Beijing Botanical Garden, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, PR China
| | - Qing-Yin Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, PR China
| | | | - Shang Su
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources/ Beijing Botanical Garden, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, PR China University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, PR China
| | - Qing-Yan Shu
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources/ Beijing Botanical Garden, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, PR China
| | - Hong-Xu Ren
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources/ Beijing Botanical Garden, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, PR China
| | - Zheng-An Liu
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources/ Beijing Botanical Garden, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, PR China
| | - Liang-Sheng Wang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources/ Beijing Botanical Garden, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, PR China
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