Boron and calcium sites involved in indole-3-acetic Acid transport in sunflower hypocotyl segments

Calcium: The Missing Link in Auxin Action

Due to their sessile lifestyles, plants need to deal with the limitations and stresses imposed by the changing environment. Plants cope with these by a remarkable developmental flexibility, which is embedded in their strategy to survive. Plants can adjust their size, shape and number of organs, bend according to gravity and light, and regenerate tissues that were damaged, utilizing a coordinating, intercellular signal, the plant hormone, auxin. Another versatile signal is the cation, Ca(2+), which is a crucial second messenger for many rapid cellular processes during responses to a wide range of endogenous and environmental signals, such as hormones, light, drought stress and others. Auxin is a good candidate for one of these Ca(2+)-activating signals. However, the role of auxin-induced Ca(2+) signaling is poorly understood. Here, we will provide an overview of possible developmental and physiological roles, as well as mechanisms underlying the interconnection of Ca(2+) and auxin signaling.

Involvement of auxin and CKs in boron deficiency induced changes in apical dominance of pea plants (Pisum sativum L.)

It has previously been shown that boron (B) deficiency inhibits growth of the plant apex, which consequently results in a relatively weak apical dominance, and a subsequent sprouting of lateral buds. Auxin and cytokinins (CKs) are the two most important phytohormones involved in the regulation of apical dominance. In this study, the possible involvement of these two hormones in B-deficiency-induced changes in apical dominance was investigated by applying B or the synthetic CK CPPU to the shoot apex of pea plants grown in nutrient solution without B supply. Export of IAA out of the shoot apex, as well as the level of IAA, Z/ZR and isopentenyl-adenine/isopentenyl-adenosine (i-Ade/i-Ado) in the shoot apex were assayed. In addition, polar IAA transport capacity was measured in two internodes of different ages using 3H-IAA. In B-deficient plants, both the level of auxin and CKs were reduced, and the export of auxin from the shoot apex was considerably decreased relative to plants well supplied with B. Application of B to the shoot apex restored the endogenous Z/ZR and IAA level to control levels and increased the export of IAA from the shoot apex, as well as the 3H-IAA transport capacity in the newly developed internodes. Further, B application to the shoot apex inhibited lateral bud growth and stimulated lateral root formation, presumably by stimulated polar IAA transport. Applying CPPU to the shoot apex, a treatment that stimulates IAA export under adequate B supply, considerably reduced the endogenous Z/ZR concentration in the shoot apex, but had no stimulatory effect on IAA concentration and transport in B-deficient plants. A similar situation appeared to exist in lateral buds of B-deficient plants as, in contrast to plants well supplied with B, application of CKs to these plants did not stimulate lateral bud growth. In contrast to the changes of Z/ZR levels in the shoot apex, which occurred after application of B or CPPU, the levels of i-Ade/i-Ado stayed more or less constant. These results suggest that there is a complex interaction between B supply and plant hormones, with a B-deficiency-induced inhibition of IAA export from the shoot apex as one of the earliest measurable events.

The effects of calcium deficiency on Cucurbita pepo L. hypocotyl cells: A (31)P nuclear-magnetic-resonance study

Calcium deficiency in zucchini (Cucurbita pepo L.) is associated with reduced growth and a reduced ability to transport auxin (Allan and Rubery, 1991, Planta 183, 604-612). An investigation of the effects of calcium-deficiency on zucchini hypocotyl cells was made using weak-acid uptake and (31)P-nuclear-magneticresonance ((31)P-NMR) spectroscopy in vivo and in tissue extracts. Calcium-deficient tissue had the same cytoplasmic and vacuolar pHs as normal tissue when extracellular pH was near neutral. At acidic external pH the vacuolar pH was lower in deficient tissue. Adenine nucleotides were present predominantly as ATP in both control and calcium-deficient tissues. Addition of calcium to calcium-deficient tissue, under conditions which cause recovery of auxin transport induced no changes in the (31)P-NMR spectra of deficient tissue. The content of mobile, phosphorylated metabolites was reduced in calcium-deficient tissue in comparison to control tissue. However, a substantial increase in the content of phosphorylcholine occurs in calcium-deficient tissues compared with controls; this may reflect changes in lipid turnover in calcium-stressed cells.

Influence of Boron on the Membrane Potential in Elodea densa and Helianthus annuus Roots and H Extrusion of Suspension Cultured Daucus carota Cells

When following the membrane potential of Elodea densa leaf cells during a dark-light regime and analysing the different phases of the cycle, the pattern under boron deficiency resembled the one reported to occur after 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea application. The potential in the dark slowly decreased when transferring Elodea densa leaflets and Helianthus annuus roots to a B-free medium and increased in the same way after B was added again. Addition of vanadate to inhibit plasmalemma ATPases in part mimicked the effects of B deficiency. It is suggested that B directly or indirectly affects the formation of a proton gradient. The effect of B on proton secretion was observed in various experiments with Daucus carota cell cultures. The results are discussed with respect to the possible involvement of B in membrane function and transport processes.

On the role of calcium in indole-3-acetic acid movement and graviresponse in etiolated pea epicotyls

To determine whether Ca2+ plays a special role in the early graviresponse of shoots, as has been reported for roots, we treated etiolated pea epicotyls with substances known to antagonize Ca2+ (La3+), to remove Ca2+ from the wall (spermidine, EGTA), to inhibit calmodulin mediated reactions (chlorpromazine), or to inhibit IAA transport (TIBA). We studied the effect of these substances on IAA and Ca2+ uptake into 7 mm long subapical 3rd internode etiolated pea epicotyl sections and pea leaf protoplasts, on pea epicotyl growth, and graviresponse and on lateral IAA redistribution during gravistimulation. Our results support the view that adequate Ca2+ in the apoplast is required for normal IAA uptake, transport and graviresponse. Experiments with protoplasts indicate that Ca2+ may be controlling a labile membrane porter, possibly located on the external surface of cell membrane, while inhibitor experiments suggest that calmodulin is also implicated in both the movement of IAA and graviresponse. Since a major transfer of Ca2+ through free space during graviresponse has not yet been demonstrated, and since inhibition of calcium channels does not affect IAA redistribution (Migliaccio and Galston, 1987, Plant Physiology 85:542), we conclude that no clear evidence links prior Ca2+ movement with IAA redistribution during graviresponse in stems.

The transport of indole-3-acetic Acid in boron- and calcium-deficient sunflower hypocotyl segments

Transfer of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L. cv Russian Mammoth) seedlings from complete nutrient solution to solutions deficient in either boron or calcium resulted in a steady decline in the rate of auxin transport, compared to seedlings that remained in the complete solution. In seedlings transferred to solutions deficient in both B and Ca, the decline in auxin transport was greater than seedlings deficient in only one element. The transfer of B- or Ca-deficient seedlings back to the complete solution prevented further decline in auxin transport, but auxin transport did not increase to the same level as seedlings maintained in complete solution. The significant reduction in auxin transport during the early stages of B or Ca deficiency was not related to (a) reduced growth rate of the hypocotyl, (b) increased acropetal movement of auxin, or (c) lack of respiratory substrates in the hypocotyl. In addition, no difference was found in the water-extractable total and ionic Ca in B-deficient and control nondeficient hypocotyls, indicating a direct effect of B on auxin transport, rather than indirectly by affecting Ca absorption. The rate of auxin transport in hypocotyls deficient in either B or Ca, was inversely correlated with K(+) leakage and rate of respiration. The data presented strongly support the view that there are separate sites for B and Ca in the basipetal transport of the plant hormone indoleacetic acid.