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Peng S, Liu Y, Xu Y, Zhao J, Gao P, Liu Q, Yan S, Xiao Y, Zuo SM, Kang H. Genome-Wide Association Study Identifies a Plant-Height-Associated Gene OsPG3 in a Population of Commercial Rice Varieties. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:11454. [PMID: 37511211 PMCID: PMC10380248 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241411454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Plant height is one of the most crucial components of plant structure. However, due to its complexity, the genetic architecture of rice plant height has not been fully elucidated. In this study, we performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) to determine rice plant height using 178 commercial rice varieties and identified 37 loci associated with rice plant height (LAPH). Among these loci, in LAPH2, we identified a polygalacturonase gene, OsPG3, which was genetically and functionally associated with rice plant height. The rice plant exhibits a super dwarf phenotype when the knockout of the OsPG3 gene occurs via CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing technology. RNA-Seq analysis indicated that OsPG3 modulates the expression of genes involved in phytohormone metabolism and cell-wall-biosynthesis pathways. Our findings suggest that OsPG3 plays a vital role in controlling rice plant height by regulating cell wall biosynthesis. Given that rice architecture is one of the most critical phenotypes in rice breeding, OsPG3 has potential in rice's molecular design breeding toward an ideal plant height.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shasha Peng
- College of Agronomy, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yanchen Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yuchen Xu
- College of Agronomy, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jianhua Zhao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Crop Genomics and Molecular Breeding/Zhongshan Biological Breeding Laboratory/Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics of the Ministry of Education, Agricultural College of Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China
| | - Peng Gao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Crop Genomics and Molecular Breeding/Zhongshan Biological Breeding Laboratory/Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics of the Ministry of Education, Agricultural College of Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China
| | - Qi Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Shuangyong Yan
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Breeding, Tianjin Crop Research Institute, Tianjin Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Tianjin 300112, China
| | - Yinghui Xiao
- College of Agronomy, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Shi-Min Zuo
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Crop Genomics and Molecular Breeding/Zhongshan Biological Breeding Laboratory/Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics of the Ministry of Education, Agricultural College of Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China
| | - Houxiang Kang
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
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Cai Z, Xian P, Cheng Y, Zhong Y, Yang Y, Zhou Q, Lian T, Ma Q, Nian H, Ge L. MOTHER-OF-FT-AND-TFL1 regulates the seed oil and protein content in soybean. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2023. [PMID: 36740575 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2023] [Accepted: 01/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Soybean is a major crop that produces valuable seed oil and protein for global consumption. Seed oil and protein are regulated by complex quantitative trait loci (QTLs) and have undergone intensive selections during the domestication of soybean. It is essential to identify the major genetic components and understand their mechanism behind seed oil and protein in soybean. We report that MOTHER-OF-FT-AND-TFL1 (GmMFT) is the gene of a classical QTL that has been reported to regulate seed oil and protein content in many studies. Mutation of MFT decreased seeds oil content and weight in both Arabidopsis and soybean, whereas increased expression of GmMFT enhanced seeds oil content and weight. Haplotype analysis showed that GmMFT has undergone selection, which resulted in the extended haplotype homozygosity in the cultivated soybean and the enriching of the oil-favorable allele in modern soybean cultivars. This work unraveled the GmMFT-mediated mechanism regulating seed oil and protein content and seed weight, and revealed a previously unknown function of MFT that provides new insights into targeted soybean improvement and breeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhandong Cai
- The State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510642, China
- Department of Grassland Science, College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, China
| | - Peiqi Xian
- The State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510642, China
- The Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Breeding of Guangdong Province, College of Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510642, China
| | - Yanbo Cheng
- The State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510642, China
- The Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Breeding of Guangdong Province, College of Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510642, China
| | - Yiwang Zhong
- The State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510642, China
- The Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Breeding of Guangdong Province, College of Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510642, China
| | - Yuan Yang
- The State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510642, China
- The Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Breeding of Guangdong Province, College of Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510642, China
| | - Qianghua Zhou
- The State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510642, China
- The Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Breeding of Guangdong Province, College of Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510642, China
| | - Tengxiang Lian
- The State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510642, China
- The Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Breeding of Guangdong Province, College of Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510642, China
| | - Qibin Ma
- The State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510642, China
- The Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Breeding of Guangdong Province, College of Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510642, China
| | - Hai Nian
- The State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510642, China
- The Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Breeding of Guangdong Province, College of Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, China
| | - Liangfa Ge
- The State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510642, China
- Department of Grassland Science, College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, China
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3
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Altpeter F, Springer NM, Bartley LE, Blechl AE, Brutnell TP, Citovsky V, Conrad LJ, Gelvin SB, Jackson DP, Kausch AP, Lemaux PG, Medford JI, Orozco-Cárdenas ML, Tricoli DM, Van Eck J, Voytas DF, Walbot V, Wang K, Zhang ZJ, Stewart CN. Advancing Crop Transformation in the Era of Genome Editing. THE PLANT CELL 2016; 28:1510-20. [PMID: 27335450 PMCID: PMC4981132 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.16.00196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 225] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/14/2016] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Plant transformation has enabled fundamental insights into plant biology and revolutionized commercial agriculture. Unfortunately, for most crops, transformation and regeneration remain arduous even after more than 30 years of technological advances. Genome editing provides novel opportunities to enhance crop productivity but relies on genetic transformation and plant regeneration, which are bottlenecks in the process. Here, we review the state of plant transformation and point to innovations needed to enable genome editing in crops. Plant tissue culture methods need optimization and simplification for efficiency and minimization of time in culture. Currently, specialized facilities exist for crop transformation. Single-cell and robotic techniques should be developed for high-throughput genomic screens. Plant genes involved in developmental reprogramming, wound response, and/or homologous recombination should be used to boost the recovery of transformed plants. Engineering universal Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains and recruiting other microbes, such as Ensifer or Rhizobium, could facilitate delivery of DNA and proteins into plant cells. Synthetic biology should be employed for de novo design of transformation systems. Genome editing is a potential game-changer in crop genetics when plant transformation systems are optimized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fredy Altpeter
- Agronomy Department, Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Florida, IFAS, Gainesville, Florida 32611
| | - Nathan M Springer
- Department of Plant Biology, Microbial and Plant Genomics Institute, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota 55108
| | - Laura E Bartley
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Biology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019
| | - Ann E Blechl
- U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agriculture Research Service, Western Regional Research Center, Albany, California 94710
| | - Thomas P Brutnell
- Enterprise Institute for Renewable Fuels, Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, Missouri 63132
| | - Vitaly Citovsky
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794
| | - Liza J Conrad
- Natural Sciences Collegium, Eckerd College, St. Petersburg, Florida 33711
| | - Stanton B Gelvin
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
| | - David P Jackson
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 11724
| | - Albert P Kausch
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881
| | - Peggy G Lemaux
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720
| | - June I Medford
- Department of Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523
| | | | - David M Tricoli
- Plant Transformation Facility, University of California, Davis, California 95616
| | - Joyce Van Eck
- The Boyce Thompson Institute, Ithaca, New York 14853
| | - Daniel F Voytas
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development and Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | - Virginia Walbot
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305
| | - Kan Wang
- Department of Agronomy and Center for Plant Transformation, Plant Sciences Institute, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011
| | - Zhanyuan J Zhang
- Plant Transformation Core Facility, Division of Plant Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri 65211
| | - C Neal Stewart
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996
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4
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Zhi L, TeRonde S, Meyer S, Arling ML, Register JC, Zhao ZY, Jones TJ, Anand A. Effect of Agrobacterium strain and plasmid copy number on transformation frequency, event quality and usable event quality in an elite maize cultivar. PLANT CELL REPORTS 2015; 34:745-54. [PMID: 25558819 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-014-1734-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2014] [Revised: 12/17/2014] [Accepted: 12/19/2014] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Improving Agrobacterium -mediated transformation frequency and event quality by increasing binary plasmid copy number and appropriate strain selection is reported in an elite maize cultivar. Agrobacterium-mediated maize transformation is a well-established method for gene testing and for introducing useful traits in a commercial biotech product pipeline. To develop a highly efficient maize transformation system, we investigated the effect of two Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains and three different binary plasmid origins of replication (ORI) on transformation frequency, vector backbone insertion, single copy event frequency (percentage of events which are single copy for all transgenes), quality event frequency (percentage of single copy events with no vector backbone insertions among all events generated; QE) and usable event quality frequency (transformation frequency times QE frequency; UE) in an elite maize cultivar PHR03. Agrobacterium strain AGL0 gave a higher transformation frequency, but a reduced QE frequency than LBA4404 due to a higher number of vector backbone insertions. Higher binary plasmid copy number positively correlated with transformation frequency and usable event recovery. The above findings can be exploited to develop high-throughput transformation protocols, improve the quality of transgenic events in maize and other plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Zhi
- DuPont Agricultural Biotechnology, DuPont-Pioneer, 8305 NW 62nd Avenue, P. O. Box 7060, Johnston, IA, 50131, USA
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5
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Deeba F, Hyder MZ, Shah SH, Naqvi SMS. Multiplex PCR assay for identification of commonly used disarmed Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains. SPRINGERPLUS 2014; 3:358. [PMID: 25089249 PMCID: PMC4117855 DOI: 10.1186/2193-1801-3-358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2014] [Accepted: 06/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The success of Agrobacterium mediated plant transformation depends to a certain extent on appropriate selection of the A. tumefaciens strain for a particular plant species. Many stages in a plant transformation procedure are prone to bacterial contamination with similar antibiotic resistance that may compromise the identity of the A. tumefaciens strain used, in turn adversely affecting success of a transformation experiment. Different primer sets were designed to exploit genetic differences among different strains of A. tumefaciens which are commonly used for plant genetic transformation, to identity confirmation as well as to distinguish them from one another. The primer sets Ach5FtsZ-F/R specific for Ach5 and C58GlyA-F/R specific for C58 were designed on chromosomal DNA while primer sets pTiBo542-F/R and nptI-F/R specific for plasmid pTiBo542 are capable to identify and distinguish these strains from one another. These primer sets when used simultaneously in multiplex PCR, produce a pattern which uniquely identifies all these strains and distinguishes them except for GV3101 and C58C1, which can further be distinguished from each other by rifampicin screening. The multiplex PCR assay and primers being reported here serve as a valuable tool in determining the identity of A. tumefaciens strains at any stage of plant transformation procedure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farah Deeba
- Department of Biochemistry, PMAS Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi, Murree Road, 46300 Rawalpindi, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Zeeshan Hyder
- Department of Biosciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Shahzad Hussain Shah
- Department of Biochemistry, PMAS Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi, Murree Road, 46300 Rawalpindi, Pakistan
| | - Syed Muhammad Saqlan Naqvi
- Department of Biochemistry, PMAS Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi, Murree Road, 46300 Rawalpindi, Pakistan
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6
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Bilichak A, Kovalchuk I. Manipulation of epigenetic factors and the DNA repair machinery for improving the frequency of plant transformation. BIOCATALYSIS AND AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcab.2013.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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7
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Oltmanns H, Frame B, Lee LY, Johnson S, Li B, Wang K, Gelvin SB. Generation of backbone-free, low transgene copy plants by launching T-DNA from the Agrobacterium chromosome. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2010; 152:1158-66. [PMID: 20023148 PMCID: PMC2832237 DOI: 10.1104/pp.109.148585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2009] [Accepted: 12/13/2009] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
In both applied and basic research, Agrobacterium-mediated transformation is commonly used to introduce genes into plants. We investigated the effect of three Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains and five transferred (T)-DNA origins of replication on transformation frequency, transgene copy number, and the frequency of integration of non-T-DNA portions of the T-DNA-containing vector (backbone) into the genome of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) and maize (Zea mays). Launching T-DNA from the picA locus of the Agrobacterium chromosome increases the frequency of single transgene integration events and almost eliminates the presence of vector backbone sequences in transgenic plants. Along with novel Agrobacterium strains we have developed, our findings are useful for improving the quality of T-DNA integration events.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Stanton B. Gelvin
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907–1392 (H.O., L.-Y.L., S.J., B.L., S.B.G.); Department of Agronomy and Plant Transformation Facility, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50010–1010 (B.F., K.W.)
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8
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Jones HD, Doherty A, Wu H. Review of methodologies and a protocol for the Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of wheat. PLANT METHODS 2005; 1:5. [PMID: 16270934 PMCID: PMC1277018 DOI: 10.1186/1746-4811-1-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2005] [Accepted: 09/05/2005] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Since the first report of wheat transformation by Agrobacterium tumefaciens in 1997, various factors that influence T-DNA delivery and regeneration in tissue culture have been further investigated and modified. This paper reviews the current methodology literature describing Agrobacterium transformation of wheat and provides a complete protocol that we have developed and used to produce over one hundred transgenic lines in both spring and winter wheat varieties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huw D Jones
- CPI Division, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, AL5 2JQ, UK
| | - Angela Doherty
- CPI Division, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, AL5 2JQ, UK
| | - Huixia Wu
- CPI Division, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, AL5 2JQ, UK
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9
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Gelvin SB. Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation: the biology behind the "gene-jockeying" tool. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2003; 67:16-37, table of contents. [PMID: 12626681 PMCID: PMC150518 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.67.1.16-37.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 620] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Agrobacterium tumefaciens and related Agrobacterium species have been known as plant pathogens since the beginning of the 20th century. However, only in the past two decades has the ability of Agrobacterium to transfer DNA to plant cells been harnessed for the purposes of plant genetic engineering. Since the initial reports in the early 1980s using Agrobacterium to generate transgenic plants, scientists have attempted to improve this "natural genetic engineer" for biotechnology purposes. Some of these modifications have resulted in extending the host range of the bacterium to economically important crop species. However, in most instances, major improvements involved alterations in plant tissue culture transformation and regeneration conditions rather than manipulation of bacterial or host genes. Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation is a highly complex and evolved process involving genetic determinants of both the bacterium and the host plant cell. In this article, I review some of the basic biology concerned with Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation. Knowledge of fundamental biological principles embracing both the host and the pathogen have been and will continue to be key to extending the utility of Agrobacterium for genetic engineering purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanton B Gelvin
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-1392, USA.
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10
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Abstract
The phytopathogenic bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens genetically transforms plants by transferring a portion of the resident Ti-plasmid, the T-DNA, to the plant. Accompanying the T-DNA into the plant cell is a number of virulence (Vir) proteins. These proteins may aid in T-DNA transfer, nuclear targeting, and integration into the plant genome. Other virulence proteins on the bacterial surface form a pilus through which the T-DNA and the transferred proteins may translocate. Although the roles of these virulence proteins within the bacterium are relatively well understood, less is known about their roles in the plant cell. In addition, the role of plant-encoded proteins in the transformation process is virtually unknown. In this article, I review what is currently known about the functions of virulence and plant proteins in several aspects of the Agrobacterium transformation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanton B. Gelvin
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-1392; e-mail:
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11
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Methods of Genetic Transformation: Agrobacterium tumefaciens. MOLECULAR IMPROVEMENT OF CEREAL CROPS 1999. [DOI: 10.1007/978-94-011-4802-3_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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12
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Hiei Y, Komari T, Kubo T. Transformation of rice mediated by Agrobacterium tumefaciens. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1997. [PMID: 9291974 DOI: 10.1023/a:1005847615493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 215] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Agrobacterium tumefaciens has been routinely utilized in gene transfer to dicotyledonous plants, but monocotyledonous plants including important cereals were thought to be recalcitrant to this technology as they were outside the host range of crown gall. Various challenges to infect monocotyledons including rice with Agrobacterium had been made in many laboratories, but the results were not conclusive until recently. Efficient transformation protocols mediated by Agrobacterium were reported for rice in 1994 and 1996. A key point in the protocols was the fact that tissues consisting of actively dividing, embryonic cells, such as immature embryos and calli induced from scutella, were co-cultivated with Agrobacterium in the presence of acetosyringonc, which is a potent inducer of the virulence genes. It is now clear that Agrobacterium is capable of transferring DNA to monocotyledons if tissues containing 'competent' cells are infected. The studies of transformation of rice suggested that numerous factors including genotype of plants, types and ages of tissues inoculated, kind of vectors, strains of Agrobacterium, selection marker genes and selective agents, and various conditions of tissue culture, are of critical importance. Advantages of the Agrobacterium-mediated transformation in rice, like on dicotyledons, include the transfer of pieces of DNA with defined ends with minimal rearrangements, the transfer of relatively large segments of DNA, the integration of small numbers of copies of genes into plant chromosomes, and high quality and fertility of transgenic plants. Delivery of foreign DNA to rice plants via A. tumefaciens is a routine technique in a growing number of laboratories. This technique will allow the genetic improvement of diverse varieties of rice, as well as studies of many aspects of the molecular biology of rice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Hiei
- Plant Breeding and Genetics Research Laboratory, Japan Tobacco Inc., Shizuoka
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13
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Nam J, Matthysse AG, Gelvin SB. Differences in susceptibility of Arabidopsis ecotypes to crown gall disease may result from a deficiency in T-DNA integration. THE PLANT CELL 1997; 9:317-33. [PMID: 9090878 PMCID: PMC156921 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.9.3.317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
We show that among ecotypes of Arabidopsis, there is considerable variation in their susceptibility to crown gall disease. Differences in susceptibility are heritable and, in one ecotype, segregate as a single major contributing locus. In several ecotypes, recalcitrance to tumorigenesis results from decreased binding of Agrobacterium to inoculated root explants. The recalcitrance of another ecotype occurs at a late step in T-DNA transfer. Transient expression of a T-DNA-encoded beta-glucuronidase gusA gene is efficient, but the ecotype is deficient in crown gall tumorigenesis, transformation to kanamycin resistance, and stable GUS expression. This ecotype is also more sensitive to gamma radiation than is a susceptible ecotype. DNA gel blot analysis showed that after infection by Agrobacterium, less T-DNA was integrated into the genome of the recalcitrant ecotype than was integrated into the genome of a highly susceptible ecotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Nam
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-1392, USA
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14
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Li HQ, Sautter C, Potrykus I, Puonti-Kaerlas J. Genetic transformation of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz). Nat Biotechnol 1996; 14:736-40. [PMID: 9630981 DOI: 10.1038/nbt0696-736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Genetic engineering can be used to complement traditional breeding methods in crop plant improvement. Transfer of genes from heterologous species provides the means of selectively introducing new traits into crop plants and expanding the gene pool beyond what has been available to traditional breeding systems. The prerequisites for genetic engineering are efficient transformation and tissue culture systems that allow selection and regeneration of transgenic plants. Cassava, an integral plant for food security in developing countries, has until now been recalcitrant to transformation approaches. We report here a method for regenerating stably transformed cassava plants after cocultivation with Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which opens cassava for future improvement via biotechnology.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Q Li
- Inst. of Plant Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zentrum, Zürich, Switzerland
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15
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Islam R, Malik T, Husnain T, Riazuddin S. Strain and cultivar specificity in the Agrobacterium-chickpea interaction. PLANT CELL REPORTS 1994; 13:561-3. [PMID: 24196221 DOI: 10.1007/bf00234511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/1993] [Revised: 03/07/1994] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
The susceptibility of four genotypes of chickpea to four wild strains of Agrobacterium tumefaciens was evaluated. Successful transformation was dependent on specific bacterial strain-plant cultivar interactions. Agropine strain A281 was the most effective for tumor induction. Tumors displayed hormone autonomous growth, were opine positive and contained DNA that was homologous to the T-DNA of the inciting strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Islam
- Department of Botany, University of Rajshahi, 6205, Rajshahi, Bangladesh
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16
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Du S, Erickson L, Bowley S. Effect of plant genotype on the transformation of cultivated alfalfa (Medicago sativa) by Agrobacterium tumefaciens. PLANT CELL REPORTS 1994; 13:330-334. [PMID: 24193831 DOI: 10.1007/bf00232631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/1993] [Revised: 01/04/1994] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The trait for somatic embryogenesis is being introduced sexually into alfalfa (Medicago sativa) breeding populations to facilitate genetic transformation of this crop. Cocultivation experiments were conducted with an agronomically-improved embryogenic clone from one such population as well as with two other embryogenic clones, one of which was the source of the embryogenic trait in the breeding populations. Transgenic plants were produced from the agronomically-improved clone whereas none were produced from the other two clones. Among the 16 transgenic plants analyzed there was a range in both copy number and number of integration sites for the NPT-II gene; those plants regenerated after a prolonged selection phase in vitro generally had the highest numbers in both respects. There was no evidence of sectoral chimerism of the transgene in a subsample of transgenic plants analyzed by PCR.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Du
- Department of Crop Science, University of Guelph, NIG 2W1, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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18
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de Kathen A, Jacobsen HJ. Transformation in Pea (Pisum sativum L.). BIOTECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY 1993. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-78037-0_26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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19
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Chen CY, Wang L, Winans SC. Characterization of the supervirulent virG gene of the Agrobacterium tumefaciens plasmid pTiBo542. MOLECULAR & GENERAL GENETICS : MGG 1991; 230:302-9. [PMID: 1745238 DOI: 10.1007/bf00290681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The virG gene of the Agrobacterium tumefaciens Ti plasmid pTiBo542 has previously been reported to elicit stronger vir gene expression than its counterpart in the pTiA6 plasmid, a property we call the "superactivator" phenotype. The DNA sequence of the pTiBo542 virG gene was determined and compared to that of the pTiA6 gene. The DNA sequences of these genes differ at 16 positions: two differences are in the promoter regions, 12 are in the coding regions, and two are in the 3' untranslated regions. The 3' end of the pTiA6 virG gene also contains a probable insertion sequence that is not found downstream of the pTiBo542 gene. The base pair differences, in the two coding regions result in only two amino acid differences, both in the amino-terminal halves of the proteins. Five hybrid virG genes were constructed and used to activate the expression of a virB::lacZ gene fusion. Differences in the coding regions of these genes accounted for most of the superactivator phenotype, while differences at the promoter and 3' untranslated regions also contributed. These findings suggest that the properties of these VirG proteins and their quantities are important for vir gene induction, and also suggest a long-term selective pressure for mutations contributing to differences between these two genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Y Chen
- Section of Microbiology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
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20
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Bush AL, Pueppke SG. Characterization of an Unusual New
Agrobacterium tumefaciens
Strain from
Chrysanthemum morifolium
Ram. Appl Environ Microbiol 1991; 57:2468-72. [PMID: 16348549 PMCID: PMC183604 DOI: 10.1128/aem.57.9.2468-2472.1991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We characterized five isolates of
Agrobacterium tumefaciens
from naturally occurring galls on
Chrysanthemum morifolium.
The isolates are similar, possibly identical, members of a single strain of
A. tumefaciens
that we designate Chry5. The strain is a biotype I, as indicated by its response to both newly described and traditional biotype tests. Chry5 produces tumors on at least 10 plant species. It is unusual in its ability to form efficiently large tumors on soybean (
Glycine max
), a species normally refractory to transformation. Chry5 is unable to utilize octopine or mannopine as a carbon source. Although Chry5 can catabolize a single isomer each of nopaline and succinamopine, it differs from other known nopaline and succinamopine strains in its insensitivity to agrocin 84. This pattern of opine catabolism is unique among
Agrobacterium
strains examined to date. All five isolates of Chry5 contain at least two plasmids, one of which shares homology with pTiB6.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Bush
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri 65211
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21
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Lacorte C, Mansur E, Timmerman B, Cordeiro AR. Gene transfer into peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) by Agrobacterium tumefaciens. PLANT CELL REPORTS 1991; 10:354-357. [PMID: 24221673 DOI: 10.1007/bf00193158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/1991] [Revised: 06/13/1991] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Introduction of foreign genes into plant tissues via Agrobacterium tumefaciens based vectors requires specific knowledge of Agrobacterium-host compatibility. Therefore, to develop a transformation protocol for peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.), five Brazilian cultivars were screened with four wild-type A.tumefaciens strains. Successful transformation was dependent on specific bacterial strain-plant cultivar interactions and strain A281 was the most effective for tumor induction. Tumors displayed hormone autonomous growth, were opine positive and contained DNA that was homologous to the T-DNA of the inciting strain. Tumors induced on seed and seedling explants by A281 (pTD02) also expressed the reporter genes gus and npt-II contained in the binary vector. These results show that peanut is a permissive host for the acceptance of genes from specific A.tumefaciens gene vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Lacorte
- Department of Genetics, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Caixa Postal 68011, CEP 21944, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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22
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Lowe BA, Krul WR. Physical, Chemical, Developmental, and Genetic Factors that Modulate the Agrobacterium-Vitis Interaction. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 1991; 96:121-9. [PMID: 16668140 PMCID: PMC1080722 DOI: 10.1104/pp.96.1.121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Tumor formation in Vitis species and hybrids, incited by Agrobacterium tumefaciens, was altered by chemical, physical, developmental, and genetic variables. Knowledge of the effect of these variables was used to develop a stringent in vitro assay system to select parents for a study of genetic factors that modulate tumor formation. Tumor formation was reduced by short day preconditioning of assay plants and by inoculation of the morphological apex of isolated stem segments. Pretreatment of plants with auxin or cytokinin altered specificity in various combinations of strains and host genotypes. All Vitis species and hybrids formed tumors in response to strains designated as limited host range, but some displayed a necrotic reaction (cell death at and below site of inoculation) or a null response (same as the response to inoculation with an avirulent strain) to strains designated as wide host range (VC Knauf, CG Panagopoulos, EW Nester [1982] Phytopathology 72: 1545-1549). Screens of F(1) progeny, derived from crosses of null, necrotic, and tumor-producing phenotypes, demonstrated that the null and the necrotic phenotypes were modulated by dominant and recessive host genes. The extent of cellular necrosis in the necrotic phenotype was modified by the morphological location of the inoculation site, by the presence of buds on the host stem, and by deletion of the tryptophane monooxygenase locus gene of the Ti-plasmid.
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Affiliation(s)
- B A Lowe
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plant Gene Expression Center, Albany, California 94710
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23
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Godwin I, Todd G, Ford-Lloyd B, Newbury HJ. The effects of acetosyringone and pH on Agrobacterium-mediated transformation vary according to plant species. PLANT CELL REPORTS 1991; 9:671-5. [PMID: 24213690 DOI: 10.1007/bf00235354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/1990] [Revised: 11/10/1990] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Expiants of five plant species (Allium cepa, Antirrhinum majus, Brassica campestris. Glycine max, and Nicotiana tabacum) were co-cultivated with three Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains under different conditions to assess the effects of acetosyringone and medium pH on strain virulence. Tumours were incited on all dicotyledonous species by strains N2/73 and A281. The presence of acetosyringone during co-cultivation generally enhanced the virulence of these strains, most markedly N2/73 on A. majus and G. max, and A281 on G. max. Strain Ach5 was virulent only on N. tabacum in the absence of acetosyringone, which, when present, extended the host range to include A. majus. There was evidence to suggest that acetosyringone may suppress virulence in some strain/plant species interactions. Virulence was affected in some cases by medium pH, but there was no general effect across plant species.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Godwin
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Birmingham, P.O. Box 363, B15 2TT, Edgbaston, Birmingham, UK
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24
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Bhatt D, Parrott WA, Collins GB, Hildebrand DF. Agrobacterium induced gall formation in lipoxygenase mutant isolines of soybeans. PLANT CELL REPORTS 1991; 9:651-654. [PMID: 24213670 DOI: 10.1007/bf00231809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/1990] [Revised: 12/13/1990] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Agrobacterium-mediated transformation frequency is very low with cells from some species such as soybeans. Studies were conducted to investigate the Agrobacterium-mediated transformation frequency in near-isogenic lipoxygenase mutant lines of soybeans, since the nigh level of lipoxygenase activity in soybean embryos might be expected to affect interactions with Agrobacterium. The mutant line lacking lipoxygenase 3 showed significantly greater frequency of Agrobacterium-induced transformation than the other soybean lines. Stages of soybean embryo development which showed maximum differences in lipoxygenase 3 activity between mutant and wild-type, also showed maximum differences in transformation frequency. The increased transformation frequency with the absence of lipoxygenase 3 was only seen when both lipoxygenase 1 and 2 were present.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Bhatt
- Unicorn Biotek Ltd., 1-10-44/1/1, Chikoti Gardens, Begumpet, 500016, Hyderabad, India
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25
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Robbs SL, Hawes MC, Lin HJ, Pueppke SG, Smith LY. Inheritance of Resistance to Crown Gall in Pisum sativum. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 1991; 95:52-7. [PMID: 16667980 PMCID: PMC1077484 DOI: 10.1104/pp.95.1.52] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
We screened a total of 1365 pea (Pisum sativum) lines for response to inoculation with Agrobacterium tumefaciens, strain B6, and characterized resistance in one cultivar, Sweet Snap. Sweet Snap seedlings were highly resistant to tumorigenesis under most conditions. Resistance was overcome at inoculum concentrations of greater than 10(9) bacteria per milliliter. At such high concentrations, very small tumors developed on Sweet Snap in response to four wide-host-range Agrobacterium strains, but tumors on other cultivars were two-to sevenfold larger than those that formed on Sweet Snap. The hypervirulent strain A281 induced larger tumors on Sweet Snap than did other Agrobacterium strains, but tumors on other genotypes were more than 100% larger than those on Sweet Snap. Physiological experiments suggested that tumorigenesis in Sweet Snap is not blocked in early stages of infection, and genetic analysis indicated that inheritance of resistance to crown gall is a quantitative trait. In addition to the observed resistance in Sweet Snap, three ;supersusceptible' genotypes, which developed very large tumors, also were identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- S L Robbs
- Sugarcane Field Station, Canal Point, Florida 33438
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26
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Komari T. Transformation of cultured cells of Chenopodium quinoa by binary vectors that carry a fragment of DNA from the virulence region of pTiBo542. PLANT CELL REPORTS 1990; 9:303-6. [PMID: 24226938 DOI: 10.1007/bf00232856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/1990] [Revised: 06/25/1990] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
A 15.2-kb KpnI fragment from the virulence region of pTiBo542, the Ti plasmid harbored by Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain A281, was introduced into binary vectors. The fragment contained the virB, virC and virG genes, and it is known to have the ability to increase the virulence of strains of A. tumefaciens. The strains of A. tumefaciens that carried the resulting plasmids were able to transform cells in a suspension culture of Chenopodium quinoa Willd cells which were not transformable by common vectors. Although the sizes of the plasmids was very large, a foreign segment of DNA was introduced into one of the plasmids by homologous recombination in A. tumefaciens cells, and the segment was subsequently transferred to plant cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Komari
- Japan Tobacco Inc., Plant Breeding and Genetics Research Laboratory, 700 Higashibara, Toyoda, Iwata, 438, Shizuoka, Japan
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27
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Hobbs SL, Jackson JA, Mahon JD. Specificity of strain and genotype in the susceptibility of pea to Agrobacterium tumefaciens. PLANT CELL REPORTS 1989; 8:274-277. [PMID: 24233224 DOI: 10.1007/bf00274128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/1989] [Revised: 06/10/1989] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
To determine the best combination for potential use in transformation of Pisum sativum L., 13 genotypes were inoculated with wild-type Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains A281, C58 and Ach5. A281 appeared to be the most virulent strain, as determined by size and number of tumours, followed by C58 and Ach5. Genotypes differed considerably in their response to inoculation and genotype x strain interaction was evident. Genotypes also responded differently to in vivo or in vitro inoculation. Axenic calli from tumours could be grown on hormone-free medium and the presence of the specific opines for each strain in the callus indicated successful transfer and expression of T-DNA. Southern blot analysis of DNA from callus of A281-inoculated material showed that both TR and TL T-DNA had been incorporated into the pea genome.
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Affiliation(s)
- S L Hobbs
- Plant Biotechnology Institute, National Research Council of Canada, Canada, S7N 0W9, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
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28
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Strabala TJ, Bednarek SY, Bertoni G, Amasino RM. Isolation and characterization of an ipt gene from the Ti plasmid Bo542. MOLECULAR & GENERAL GENETICS : MGG 1989; 216:388-94. [PMID: 2747621 DOI: 10.1007/bf00334380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
A 1.9 kb clone of the T-DNA region of the Agrobacterium tumefaciens Ti plasmid Bo542 which exhibited homology to the isopentenyl transferase (ipt) locus of pTiA6 was identified by low stringency DNA hybridization. Introduction of this segment of pTiBo542 DNA into cells of Nicotiana tabacum or N. glauca caused tumor formation in vivo, and allowed hormone independent growth in vitro. Furthermore, this DNA segment complemented ipt mutant strains of A. tumefaciens, restoring their ability to cause tumors on Kalanchöe leaves and tomato stems. The complete DNA sequence of this segment has been determined, revealing an open reading frame homologous to other known Agrobacterium ipt genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- T J Strabala
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison 53706
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29
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Chabaud M, Passiatore JE, Cannon F, Buchanan-Wollaston V. Parameters affecting the frequency of kanamycin resistant alfalfa obtained by Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated transformation. PLANT CELL REPORTS 1988; 7:512-516. [PMID: 24240404 DOI: 10.1007/bf00272744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/1988] [Revised: 10/17/1988] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Kanamycin resistant plants of Medicago varia A2 were obtained by an optimized procedure for high frequency transformation using Agrobacterium tumefaciens infection of leaf and petiole tissue. Parameters which affected the frequency were explant type, the Agrobacterium strain used and the time allowed for cocultivation. Under optimum conditions, i.e., using the Agrobacterium strain A281 and a 4 day cocultivation period, the frequency of transformed leaflets obtained was greater than 70%.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Chabaud
- Bio Technica International, Inc., 85 Bolton Street, 02140, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
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30
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Owens LD, Smigocki AC. Transformation of Soybean Cells Using Mixed Strains of Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Phenolic Compounds. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 1988; 88:570-3. [PMID: 16666350 PMCID: PMC1055626 DOI: 10.1104/pp.88.3.570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Cotyledon explants from germinated 1-day-old soybean seedling were inoculated with single or mixed strains of Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Mixed-strain infections with the supervirulent L,L-succinamopine type strain A281 (pTiBo542) and strain LBA4404 carrying an octopine type virulence (vir) region and a binary vector (pBin6) with a chimeric gene for kanamycin detoxification gave rise to tumors of which 25% were both kanamycin resistant and capable of hormone-independent growth. Singlestrain inoculations with LBA4404 (pBin6) failed to give rise to kanamycin-resistant callus. Syringaldehyde, a compound which induces vir genes carried on the Ti plasmid, increased the number of galls incited on excised cotyledons by the weakly virulent octopine type strain A348 (pTiA6). Similar results were obtained with whole plants treated with this strain in the presence of the vir-inducing compound acetosyringone. Our results indicate that the recovery of transformed soybean cells can be enabled in some instances by coinfecting with a supervirulent strain or in other instances promoted by adding a phenolic compound to the inoculum.
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Affiliation(s)
- L D Owens
- Plant Molecular Biology Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland 20705
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