In vivo mapping of brain elasticity in small animals using shear wave imaging

Unveiling the potential of ultrasound in brain imaging: Innovations, challenges, and prospects

Within medical imaging, ultrasound serves as a crucial tool, particularly in the realms of brain imaging and disease diagnosis. It offers superior safety, speed, and wider applicability compared to Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and X-ray Computed Tomography (CT). Nonetheless, conventional transcranial ultrasound applications in adult brain imaging face challenges stemming from the significant acoustic impedance contrast between the skull bone and soft tissues. Recent strides in ultrasound technology encompass a spectrum of advancements spanning tissue structural imaging, blood flow imaging, functional imaging, and image enhancement techniques. Structural imaging methods include traditional transcranial ultrasound techniques and ultrasound elastography. Transcranial ultrasound assesses the structure and function of the skull and brain, while ultrasound elastography evaluates the elasticity of brain tissue. Blood flow imaging includes traditional transcranial Doppler (TCD), ultrafast Doppler (UfD), contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS), and ultrasound localization microscopy (ULM), which can be used to evaluate the velocity, direction, and perfusion of cerebral blood flow. Functional ultrasound imaging (fUS) detects changes in cerebral blood flow to create images of brain activity. Image enhancement techniques include full waveform inversion (FWI) and phase aberration correction techniques, focusing on more accurate localization and analysis of brain structures, achieving more precise and reliable brain imaging results. These methods have been extensively studied in clinical animal models, neonates, and adults, showing significant potential in brain tissue structural imaging, cerebral hemodynamics monitoring, and brain disease diagnosis. They represent current hotspots and focal points of ultrasound medical research. This review provides a comprehensive summary of recent developments in brain imaging technologies and methods, discussing their advantages, limitations, and future trends, offering insights into their prospects.

The Networking Brain: How Extracellular Matrix, Cellular Networks, and Vasculature Shape the In Vivo Mechanical Properties of the Brain

Mechanically, the brain is characterized by both solid and fluid properties. The resulting unique material behavior fosters proliferation, differentiation, and repair of cellular and vascular networks, and optimally protects them from damaging shear forces. Magnetic resonance elastography (MRE) is a noninvasive imaging technique that maps the mechanical properties of the brain in vivo. MRE studies have shown that abnormal processes such as neuronal degeneration, demyelination, inflammation, and vascular leakage lead to tissue softening. In contrast, neuronal proliferation, cellular network formation, and higher vascular pressure result in brain stiffening. In addition, brain viscosity has been reported to change with normal blood perfusion variability and brain maturation as well as disease conditions such as tumor invasion. In this article, the contributions of the neuronal, glial, extracellular, and vascular networks are discussed to the coarse-grained parameters determined by MRE. This reductionist multi-network model of brain mechanics helps to explain many MRE observations in terms of microanatomical changes and suggests that cerebral viscoelasticity is a suitable imaging marker for brain disease.

Transcranial ultrasound estimation of viscoelasticity and fluidity in brain tumors aided by transcranial shear waves

Cerebral diseases, such as brain tumors, are intricately linked to the mechanical properties of brain tissues. Estimating the mechanical properties of brain tumors using transcranial ultrasound is a promising approach. However, the complexity of cranial features introduces challenges, such as ultrasound attenuation and interference from multidirectional transcranial shear waves induced by impact vibrations. To address these issues, this study proposes a transcranial ultrasound estimation method assisted by transcranial shear vibrations. Transcranial vibrations apply shear forces on the parietal bone, inducing unidirectional transcranial shear waves within brain tissue, as validated through simulations. Shear waves at different frequencies were captured via transcranial ultrasound, which were used to assess the viscoelasticity and fluidity of brain tumors. Transcranial experimental validations were conducted in 3D-printed models with tumor phantoms and ex vivo animal tumors. Vibration safety assessments were also performed. The results demonstrate that transcranial ultrasound can detect micron displacements induced by transcranial shear waves. In phantom and ex vivo animal experiments, speed distribution maps were employed to determine the size and location of one or two tumors enclosed in the skull model. The results revealed that the proposed approach could detect tumors with a minimum diameter of 0.8 cm and an inter-tumor distance of 0.8 cm. Notably, significant differences in viscoelasticity and fluidity between normal brain tissue and brain tumors were found (p<0.001). The maximum assessment errors for the elasticity, viscosity, and fluidity using transcranial ultrasound were 11.90%, 4.82%, and 0.73%, respectively, indicating that fluidity was more robust than viscoelasticity. The maximum accelerations of the skull were only 3.21 ms-2.

Photoacoustic elasto-viscography and optical coherence microscopy for multi-parametric ex vivo brain imaging

Optical coherence microscopy (OCM) has shown the importance of imaging ex vivo brain slices at the microscopic level for a better understanding of the disease pathology and mechanism. However, the current OCM-based techniques are mainly limited to providing the tissue's optical properties, such as the attenuation coefficient, scattering coefficient, and cell architecture. Imaging the tissue's mechanical properties, including the elasticity and viscosity, in addition to the optical properties, to provide a comprehensive multi-parametric assessment of the sample has remained a challenge. Here, we present an integrated photoacoustic elasto-viscography (PAEV) and OCM imaging system to measure the sample's optical absorption coefficient, attenuation coefficient, and mechanical properties, including elasticity and viscosity. The obtained mechanical and optical properties were consistent with anatomical features observed in the PAEV and OCM images. The elasticity and viscosity maps showed rich variations of microstructural mechanical properties of mice brain. In the reconstructed elasto-viscogram of brain slices, greater elasticity, and lower viscosity were observed in white matter than in gray matter. With the ability to provide multi-parametric properties of the sample, the PAEV-OCM system holds the potential for a more comprehensive study of brain disease pathology.

Ultrasound-guided puncture into newborn rat brain

Since the brain structure of neonatal rats was not fully formed during the first 4 days, it cannot be detected using ultrasound. The objective of this study was to investigate the use of ultrasound to guide puncture in the normal coronal brain structure and determine the puncture depth of the location of the cortex, hippocampus, lateral ventricle, and striatum of newborn rats of 5-15 days. The animal was placed in a prone position. The specific positions of the cortex, hippocampus, lateral ventricle, and striatum were measured under ultrasound. Then, the rats were punctured with a stereotaxic instrument, and dye was injected. Finally, the brains of rats were taken to make frozen sections to observe the puncture results. By ultrasound, the image of the cortex, hippocampus, lateral ventricle, and striatum of the rat can be obtained and the puncture depth of the cortex (8 days: 1.02 ± 0.12, 10 days: 1.02 ± 0.08, 13 days: 1.43 ± 0.05), hippocampus (8 days: 2.63 ± 0.07, 10 days: 2.77 ± 0.14, 13 days: 2.82 ± 0.09), lateral ventricle (8 days: 2.08 ± 0.04, 10 days: 2.26 ± 0.03, 13 days: 2.40 ± 0.06), and corpus striatum (8 days: 4.57 ± 0.09, 10 days: 4.94 ± 0.31, 13 days: 5.13 ± 0.10) can be accurately measured. The rat brain structure and puncture depth changed with the age of the rats. Ultrasound technology can not only clarify the brain structure characteristics of 5-15-day-old rats but also guide the puncture and injection of the rat brain structure. The results of this study laid the foundation for the future use of ultrasound in experimental animal models of neurological diseases.

Modeling fibrous soft tissue dissection with elastic-plastic deformation for simulation of brain tumor removal

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Realistic modeling the dissection of brain tissue is of key importance for simulation of brain tumor removal in virtual neurosurgery systems. However, existing methods are unable to characterize inelastic behaviors of brain tissue, such as plastic deformation and dissection evolution, making it ineffective in simulating brain tumor removal procedures.

METHODS

In this paper, a model of fibrous soft tissue dissection for the simulation of brain tumor removal is proposed. A dissection variable of representative volume element is used to characterize the dissection state of the fibrous soft tissue. The evolution of dissection with elastic-plastic deformation under the effects of external loads is presented.

RESULTS

Simulation results show that the proposed model provides realistic, stable and intuitive results in the simulation of fracture in fibrous soft tissues. As the external load increases, the fibrous soft tissue begins to crack, with the cracks growing and multiplying until they eventually merge to form a fracture. The proposed model is incorporated into the simulation of brain tumor removal.

CONCLUSIONS

The experimental results demonstrate the feasibility of modeling fibrous soft tissue dissection with elastic-plastic deformation. A relative high degree of realistic visual feedback is achieved.

Unravelling the mechanotransduction pathways in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) represents one of the most common and debilitating neurodegenerative disorders. By the end of 2040, AD patients might reach 11.2 million in the USA, around 70% higher than 2022, with severe consequences on the society. As now, we still need research to find effective methods to treat AD. Most studies focused on the tau and amyloid hypothesis, but many other factors are likely involved in the pathophysiology of AD. In this review, we summarize scientific evidence dealing with the mechanotransduction players in AD to highlight the most relevant mechano-responsive elements that play a role in AD pathophysiology. We focused on the AD-related role of extracellular matrix (ECM), nuclear lamina, nuclear transport and synaptic activity. The literature supports that ECM alteration causes the lamin A increment in the AD patients, leading to the formation of nuclear blebs and invaginations. Nuclear blebs have consequences on the nuclear pore complexes, impairing nucleo-cytoplasmic transport. This may result in tau hyperphosphorylation and its consequent self-aggregation in tangles, which impairs the neurotransmitters transport. It all exacerbates in synaptic transmission impairment, leading to the characteristic AD patient's memory loss. Here we related for the first time all the evidence associating the mechanotransduction pathway with neurons. In addition, we highlighted the entire pathway influencing neurodegenerative diseases, paving the way for new research perspectives in the context of AD and related pathologies.

Mechanical behavior of the hippocampus and corpus callosum: An attempt to reconcile ex vivo with in vivo and micro with macro properties

Mechanical properties of brain tissue are very complex and vary with the species, region, method, and dynamic range, and between in vivo and ex vivo measurements. To reconcile this variability, we investigated in vivo and ex vivo stiffness properties of two distinct regions in the human and mouse brain - the hippocampus (HP) and the corpus callosum (CC) - using different methods. Under quasi-static conditions, we examined ex vivo murine HP and CC by atomic force microscopy (AFM). Between 16 and 40Hz, we investigated the in vivo brains of healthy volunteers by magnetic resonance elastography (MRE) in a 3-T clinical scanner. At high-frequency stimulation between 1000 and 1400Hz, we investigated the murine HP and CC ex vivo and in vivo with MRE in a 7-T preclinical system. HP and CC showed pronounced stiffness dispersion, as reflected by a factor of 32-36 increase in shear modulus from AFM to low-frequency human MRE and a 25-fold higher shear wave velocity in murine MRE than in human MRE. At low frequencies, HP was softer than CC, in both ex vivo mouse specimens (p < 0.05) and in vivo human brains (p < 0.01) while, at high frequencies, CC was softer than HP under in vivo (p < 0.01) and ex vivo (p < 0.05) conditions. The standard linear solid model comprising three elements reproduced the observed HP and CC stiffness dispersions, while other two- and three-element models failed. Our results indicate a remarkable consistency of brain stiffness across species, ex vivo and in vivo states, and different measurement techniques when marked viscoelastic dispersion properties combining equilibrium and non-equilibrium mechanical elements are considered.

Cranial window for longitudinal and multimodal imaging of the whole mouse cortex

SIGNIFICANCE

All functional brain imaging methods have technical drawbacks and specific spatial and temporal resolution limitations. Unraveling brain function requires bridging the data acquired with cellular and mesoscopic functional imaging. This imposes the access to animal preparations, allowing longitudinal and multiscale investigations of brain function in anesthetized and awake animals. Such preparations are optimal to study normal and pathological brain functions while reducing the number of animals used.

AIM

To fulfill these needs, we developed a chronic and stable preparation for a broad set of imaging modalities and experimental design.

APPROACH

We describe the detailed protocol for a chronic cranial window, transparent to light and ultrasound, devoid of BOLD functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) artifact and allowing stable and longitudinal multimodal imaging of the entire mouse cortex.

RESULTS

The inexpensive, transparent, and curved polymethylpentene cranial window preparation gives access to the entire mouse cortex. It is compatible with standard microscopic and mesoscopic neuroimaging methods. We present examples of data on the neurovascular unit and its activation using two-photon, functional ultrasound imaging, and BOLD fMRI.

CONCLUSION

This preparation is ideal for multimodal imaging in the same animal.

Controllable Angle Shear Wavefront Reconstruction Based on Image Fusion Method for Shear Wave Elasticity Imaging

The generation and measurement of shear waves are critical in ultrasonic elasticity imaging. Generally, the resulting wavefront direction is very important for accurately measuring the shear speed and estimating the medium elasticity. In this article, the proposed method can generate a compound shear wavefront with the same direction as speed reconstruction and zero angles between the wavefront and the focus direction, which can improve the estimation accuracy of shear wave velocity. Also, this method, called time-division multipoint excitation image fusion (TDMPEIF), can reconstruct the shear wave propagation images acquired at different depths of a medium according to the frame sequence to produce the shear waves front with a regulable angle. Moreover, the shear wave speed and the elasticity of a medium can be mapped quantitatively with this method. The results demonstrate that the TDMPEIF can improve the quality of the shear wave velocity images, which has wide application value and good promotion prospects for quantitative evaluation of tissue elasticity.

The Role of Ultrasound as a Diagnostic and Therapeutic Tool in Experimental Animal Models of Stroke: A Review

Ultrasound is a noninvasive technique that provides real-time imaging with excellent resolution, and several studies demonstrated the potential of ultrasound in acute ischemic stroke monitoring. However, only a few studies were performed using animal models, of which many showed ultrasound to be a safe and effective tool also in therapeutic applications. The full potential of ultrasound application in experimental stroke is yet to be explored to further determine the limitations of this technique and to ensure the accuracy of translational research. This review covers the current status of ultrasound applied to monitoring and treatment in experimental animal models of stroke and examines the safety, limitations, and future perspectives.

A Shift in Tissue Stiffness During Hippocampal Maturation Correlates to the Pattern of Neurogenesis and Composition of the Extracellular Matrix

Aging changes the mechanical properties of brain tissue, such as stiffness. It has been proposed that the maintenance and differentiation of neural stem cells (NSCs) are regulated in accordance with extracellular stiffness. Neurogenesis is observed in restricted niches, including the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus, throughout mammalian lifetimes. However, profiles of tissue stiffness in the DG in comparison with the activity of NSCs from the neonatal to the matured brain have rarely been addressed so far. Here, we first applied ultrasound-based shear-wave elasticity imaging (SWEI) in living animals to assess shear modulus as in vivo brain stiffness. To complement the assay, atomic force microscopy (AFM) was utilized to determine the Young’s modulus in the hippocampus as region-specific stiffness in the brain slice. The results revealed that stiffness in the granule cell layer (GCL) and the hilus, including the subgranular zone (SGZ), increased during hippocampal maturation. We then quantified NSCs and immature neural cells in the DG with differentiation markers, and verified an overall decrease of NSCs and proliferative/immature neural cells along stages, showing that a specific profile is dependent on the subregion. Subsequently, we evaluated the amount of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs), the major extracellular matrix (ECM) components in the premature brain by CS-56 immunoreactivity. We observed differential signal levels of CSPGs by hippocampal subregions, which became weaker during maturation. To address the contribution of the ECM in determining tissue stiffness, we manipulated the function of CSPGs by enzymatic digestion or supplementation with chondroitin sulfate, which resulted in an increase or decrease of stiffness in the DG, respectively. Our results illustrate that stiffness in the hippocampus shifts due to the composition of ECM, which may affect postnatal neurogenesis by altering the mechanical environment of the NSC niche.

Optogenetic fUSI for brain-wide mapping of neural activity mediating collicular-dependent behaviors

Neuronal cell types are arranged in brain-wide circuits that guide behavior. In mice, the superior colliculus innervates a set of targets that direct orienting and defensive actions. We combined functional ultrasound imaging (fUSI) with optogenetics to reveal the network of brain regions functionally activated by four collicular cell types. Stimulating each neuronal group triggered different behaviors and activated distinct sets of brain nuclei. This included regions not previously thought to mediate defensive behaviors, for example, the posterior paralaminar nuclei of the thalamus (PPnT), which we show to play a role in suppressing habituation. Neuronal recordings with Neuropixels probes show that (1) patterns of spiking activity and fUSI signals correlate well in space and (2) neurons in downstream nuclei preferentially respond to innately threatening visual stimuli. This work provides insight into the functional organization of the networks governing innate behaviors and demonstrates an experimental approach to explore the whole-brain neuronal activity downstream of targeted cell types.

Application of Multiparametric Intraoperative Ultrasound in Glioma Surgery

Gliomas are the most invasive and fatal primary malignancy of the central nervous system that have poor prognosis, with maximal safe resection representing the gold standard for surgical treatment. To achieve gross total resection (GTR), neurosurgery relies heavily on generating continuous, real-time, intraoperative glioma descriptions based on image guidance. Given the limitations of currently available equipment, developing a real-time image-guided resection technique that provides reliable functional and anatomical information during intraoperative settings is imperative. Nowadays, the application of intraoperative ultrasound (IOUS) has been shown to improve resection rates and maximize brain function preservation. IOUS, which presents an attractive option due to its low cost, minimal operational flow interruptions, and lack of radiation exposure, is able to provide real-time localization and accurate tumor size and shape descriptions while helping distinguish residual tumors and addressing brain shift. Moreover, the application of new advancements in ultrasound technology, such as contrast-enhanced ultrasound, three-dimensional ultrasound, navigable ultrasound, ultrasound elastography, and functional ultrasound, could help to achieve GTR during glioma surgery. The current review describes current advancements in ultrasound technology and evaluates the role and limitation of IOUS in glioma surgery.

A review of physical and engineering factors potentially affecting shear wave elastography

It has been recognized that tissue stiffness provides useful diagnostic information, as with palpation as a screening for diseases such as cancer. In recent years, shear wave elastography (SWE), a technique for evaluating and imaging tissue elasticity quantitatively and objectively in diagnostic imaging, has been put into practical use, and the amount of clinical knowledge about SWE has increased. In addition, some guidelines and review papers regarding technology and clinical applications have been published, and the status as a diagnostic technology is in the process of being established. However, there are still unclear points about the interpretation of shear wave speed (SWS) and converted elastic modulus in SWE. To clarify these, it is important to investigate the factors that affect the SWS and elastic modulus. Therefore, physical and engineering factors that potentially affect the SWS and elastic modulus are discussed in this review paper, based on the principles of SWE and a literature review. The physical factors include the propagation properties of shear waves, mechanical properties (viscoelasticity, nonlinearity, and anisotropy), and size and shape of target tissues. The engineering factors include the region of interest depth and signal processing. The aim of this review paper is not to provide an answer to the interpretation of SWS. It is to provide information for readers to formulate and verify the hypothesis for the interpretation. Therefore, methods to verify the hypothesis for the interpretation are also reviewed. Finally, studies on the safety of SWE are discussed.

Identification of brain structures and blood vessels by conventional ultrasound in rats

BACKGROUND

Ultrasound is a safe, non-invasive and affordable imaging technique for the visualization of internal structures and the measurement of blood velocity using Doppler imaging. However, despite all these advantages, no study has identified the structures of the rat brain using conventional ultrasound.

METHODS

A 13 MHz high frequency transducer was used to identify brain structures in the rat. The enlargement of the transcranial window was performed gradually using the ultrasound directly on the skin of the animal, then against the skull, then through a delimited craniotomy and finally through a complete craniotomy.

RESULTS

Our results showed that ultrasound allowed the identification of cerebral ventricles and subarachnoid cisterns, as well as the analysis of real-time monitoring of cerebral blood flow in the main brain arteries of the rat.

COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS

Ultrasound is a tool with the potential to identify brain structures and blood vessels. In contrast to MRI, transcranial ultrasound is a fast, non-invasive, well tolerated and low-cost method and can be done at the bedside.

CONCLUSION

In the present study, we described an atlas of the main brain structures as well as the main vasculature in the rat using ultrasound. This technique could be applied in animal models of various neurological diseases.

Progress in the Application of Ultrasound Elastography for Brain Diseases

Ultrasound (US) can be used to evaluate the brain structure and nervous system damage. Patients with neurologic symptoms need rapid, noninvasive imaging with high spatial resolution and tissue contrast. Magnetic resonance imaging is currently the most sensitive and specific imaging method for evaluating neuropathologic conditions. This approach does present some challenges, such as the need to transport patients who may be seriously ill to the magnetic resonance imaging suite and the need for patients to remain for a considerable time. Cranial US provides a very valuable imaging method for clinicians, which can make a rapid diagnosis and evaluation without ionizing radiation. The main disadvantage of cranial US is its low sensitivity and specificity for subtle/early lesions. In recent years, with the rapid development of anatomic and functional US technology, the practicability of US diagnosis and intervention has been greatly improved. Ultrasound elastography may have the potential to improve the sensitivity and specificity of various cranial nerve conditions. Ultrasound elastography has received considerable critical attention, and an increasing number of studies have recognized its critical role in evaluating brain diseases. At present, US elastography has been applied to the evaluation of traumatic brain injury, ischemic stroke, intraoperative brain tumors, and hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy. The latest animal experiments and human clinical trial developments in the applications of US elastography for brain diseases are summarized in this review.

From Light to Sound: Photoacoustic and Ultrasound Imaging in Fundamental Research of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) causes severe cognitive dysfunction and has long been studied for the underlining physiological and pathological mechanisms. Several biomedical imaging modalities have been applied, including MRI, PET, and high-resolution optical microscopy, for research purposes. However, there is still a strong need for imaging tools that can provide high spatiotemporal resolutions with relatively deep penetration to enhance our understanding of AD pathology and monitor treatment progress in fundamental research. Photoacoustic (PA) imaging and ultrasound (US) imaging can potentially address these unmet needs in AD research. PA imaging provides functional information with endogenous and/or exogenous contrast, while US imaging provides structural information. Recent studies have demonstrated the ability to monitor physiological parameters in small-animal brains with PA and US imaging as well as the feasibility of using US imaging as a therapeutic tool for AD. This concise review aims to introduce recent advances in AD research using PA and US imaging, provide the fundamentals, and discuss the potentials and challenges for future advances.

Changes in spinal cord stiffness in the course of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, a mouse model of multiple sclerosis

Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a commonly used mouse model of multiple sclerosis, a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by demyelination leading to brain and spinal cord malfunctions. We postulate that not only biological but also biomechanical properties play an important role in impairements of CNS function. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was applied to investigate mechanical properties of spinal cords collected from EAE mice in preonset, onset, peak, and chronic disease phases. Biomechanical changes were compared with histopathological alterations observed in the successive phases. The deformability of gray matter did not change, while rigidity of white matter increased during the onset phase, remained at the same level in the peak phase and decreased in the chronic phase. Inflammatory infiltration and laminin content accompanied the tissue rigidity increase, whereas demyelination and axonal damage showed an opposite effect. The increase in white matter rigidity can be regarded as an early signature of EAE.

Laser-speckle-contrast projection tomography for three-dimensional shear wave imaging

Laser-speckle-contrast shear wave (LSC-SW) imaging is an optical method for tracking the propagation of a transient shear wave. With high spatial resolution and sensitivity in detecting displacements, this method is suitable for performing mechanical measurements in vitro. Here, we present a LSC-SW tomographic imaging system for visualizing the propagating shear wave wavefront in four dimensions [i.e., three-dimensional (3D) space plus time]. The volumetric elasticity distribution of a sample is constructed by estimating the speeds of the shear waves propagating along multiple paths at different angles. The proposed method enables multidirectional estimations of the shear wave speed. The capabilities of the imaging system are demonstrated by evaluating isotropy (both homogeneous and heterogeneous) and anisotropy in semiturbid phantoms. The proposed system is suitable for the mechanical characterization of a 3D cell culture system, such as monitoring changes in fiber orientation during the remodeling of the extracellular matrix that is known to be strongly associated with the progression and characterization of tumors.

Establishment of an Experimental Intracerebral Haemorrhage Model for Mass Effect Research using a Thermo-sensitive Hydrogel

The mechanical response of brain tissue closely relates to cerebral blood flow and brain diseases. During intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH), a mass effect occurs during the initial bleeding and results in significant tissue deformation. However, fewer studies have focused on the brain damage mechanisms and treatment approaches associated with mass effects compared to the secondary brain injuries after ICH, which may be a result of the absence of acceptable animal models mimicking a mass effect. Thus, a thermo-sensitive poly (N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) hydrogel was synthesized and injected into the rat brain to establish an ICH model for mass effect research. The PNIPAM hydrogel or autologous blood was injected to establish an ICH animal model, and the space-occupying volumes, brain tissue elasticity, brain oedema, neuronal cell death, iron deposition and behavioural recovery were evaluated. The lower critical solution temperature of PNIPAM hydrogel was 32 °C, and the PNIPAM hydrogel had a rough surface with similar topography and pore structure to a blood clot. Furthermore, the ICH model animals who received an injection of PNIPAM and blood produced similar lesion volumes, elasticity changes and mechanically activated ion channel piezo-2 upregulation in brain tissue. Meanwhile, slight iron deposition, neuronal cell death and brain oedema were observed in the PNIPAM hydrogel model compared to the blood model. In addition, the PNIPAM hydrogel showed good biocompatibility and stability in vivo via subcutaneous implantation. Our findings show that PNIPAM hydrogel cerebral infusion can form a mass effect similar to haematoma and minimize the interference of blood, and the establishment of a mass effect ICH model is beneficial for understanding the mechanism of primary brain injury and the role of mass effects in secondary brain damage after ICH.

Ex Vivo Evaluation of Mouse Brain Elasticity Using High-Frequency Ultrasound Elastography

OBJECTIVE

Most neurodegenerative diseases are highly linked with aging. The mechanical properties of the brain should be determined for predicting and diagnosing age-related brain diseases. A preclinical animal study is crucial for neurological disease research. However, estimation of the elasticity properties of different regions of mouse brains remains difficult because of the size of the brain. In this paper, high-frequency ultrasound elastography (HFUSE) based on shear wave imaging was proposed for mapping the stiffness of the mouse brain at different ages ex vivo.

METHODS

For HFUSE, a 40-MHz ultrasound array transducer with an ultrafast ultrasound imaging system was used in this paper. The accuracy and resolution during HFUSE were determined through a mechanical testing system and by conducting phantom experiments.

RESULTS

In the experiments, the error in the elastic modulus measurement was approximately 10% on average, and the axial resolution was 248 μm. Animal testing was conducted using mice that were 4 (young aged) and 11 (middle aged) months old. The elasticity distributions of the cortex and hippocampus in the mouse brains were obtained through HFUSE.

CONCLUSION

The average shear moduli of the cortex and hippocampus were 3.84 and 2.33 kPa for the 4-month-old mice and 3.77 and 1.94 kPa for the 11-month-old mice, respectively. No statistical difference was observed in the cortex stiffness of mice of different ages. However, the hippocampus significantly softened with aging.

Anisotropic Properties of Breast Tissue Measured by Acoustic Radiation Force Impulse Quantification

The goal of our study was to investigate the anisotropy of normal breast glandular and fatty tissue with acoustic radiation force impulse (ARFI) quantification. A total of 137 breasts in 137 women were enrolled. These breasts were divided into the duct-apparent group and the duct-inapparent group, divided into the ligament-apparent group and the ligament-inapparent group. Shear wave velocity (SWV) in the radial (SWV(r)) and anti-radial (SWV(a-r)) directions was measured. The elastic anisotropy of glandular tissue and fatty tissue was evaluated as the ratio between SWV(r) and SWV(a-r). The SWV ratio was 1.30 ± 0.45 for glandular tissue and 1.27 ± 0.53 for fatty tissue in the total group. In glandular tissue, the SWV ratio of the duct-apparent group was higher than that of the duct-inapparent group (p = 0.011). In both glandular and fatty tissue, the SWV ratio was higher in the ligament-apparent group than in the ligament-inapparent group (p < 0.05 for both). SWV(r) was higher than SWV(a-r) in both glandular tissue and fatty tissue in all groups (p < 0.05 for all) except in breast fatty tissue in the ligament-inapparent group (p = 0.913). It is concluded that both breast glandular tissue and fatty tissue exhibited anisotropy of elastic behavior. To improve the diagnostic power of elastography in breast lesions, the elastic anisotropy of glandular tissue and fatty tissue should be taken into account in calculating strain ratio or elasticity ratio.

ARFI: from basic principles to clinical applications in diffuse chronic disease-a review

Abstract

The many factors influencing the shear wave velocity (SWV) measured with Acoustic Radiation Force Impulse (ARFI) are examined in order to define the most correct examination technique. In particular, attention is given to the information achieved by experimental models, such as phantoms and animal studies. This review targets the clinical applications of ARFI in the evaluation of chronic diffuse disease, especially of liver and kidneys. The contribution of ARFI to the clinical workout of these patients and some possible perspectives are described.

Teaching Points

• Stiffness significantly varies among normal and abnormal biological tissues.

• In clinical applications physical, geometrical, anatomical and physiological factors influence the SWV.

• Elastographic techniques can quantify fibrosis, which is directly related to stiffness.

• ARFI can be useful in chronic diffuse disease of liver and kidney.

Wavelet-transform-based active imaging of cavitation bubbles in tissues induced by high intensity focused ultrasound

Cavitation detection and imaging are essential for monitoring high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) therapies. In this paper, an active cavitation imaging method based on wavelet transform is proposed to enhance the contrast between the cavitation bubbles and surrounding tissues. The Yang-Church model, which is a combination of the Keller-Miksis equation with the Kelvin-Voigt equation for the pulsations of gas bubbles in simple linear viscoelastic solids, is utilized to construct the bubble wavelet. Experiments with porcine muscles demonstrate that image quality is associated with the initial radius of the bubble wavelet and the scale. Moreover, the Yang-Church model achieves a somewhat better performance compared with the Rayleigh-Plesset-Noltingk-Neppiras-Poritsky model. Furthermore, the pulse inversion (PI) technique is combined with bubble wavelet transform to achieve further improvement. The cavitation-to-tissue ratio (CTR) of the best tissue bubble wavelet transform (TBWT) mode image is improved by 5.1 dB compared with that of the B-mode image, while the CTR of the best PI-based TBWT mode image is improved by 7.9 dB compared with that of the PI-based B-mode image. This work will be useful for better monitoring of cavitation in HIFU-induced therapies.

Observation of direction-dependent mechanical properties in the human brain with multi-excitation MR elastography

Magnetic resonance elastography (MRE) has shown promise in noninvasively capturing changes in mechanical properties of the human brain caused by neurodegenerative conditions. MRE involves vibrating the brain to generate shear waves, imaging those waves with MRI, and solving an inverse problem to determine mechanical properties. Despite the known anisotropic nature of brain tissue, the inverse problem in brain MRE is based on an isotropic mechanical model. In this study, distinct wave patterns are generated in the brain through the use of multiple excitation directions in order to characterize the potential impact of anisotropic tissue mechanics on isotropic inversion methods. Isotropic inversions of two unique displacement fields result in mechanical property maps that vary locally in areas of highly aligned white matter. Investigation of the corpus callosum, corona radiata, and superior longitudinal fasciculus, three highly ordered white matter tracts, revealed differences in estimated properties between excitations of up to 33%. Using diffusion tensor imaging to identify dominant fiber orientation of bundles, relationships between estimated isotropic properties and shear asymmetry are revealed. This study has implications for future isotropic and anisotropic MRE studies of white matter tracts in the human brain.

Fabrication of three-dimensional hydrogel scaffolds for modeling shunt failure by tissue obstruction in hydrocephalus

Background

Shunt obstruction in the treatment of hydrocephalus is poorly understood, is multi-factorial, and in many cases is modeled ineffectively. Several mechanisms may be responsible, one of which involves shunt infiltration by reactive cells from the brain parenchyma. This has not been modeled in culture and cannot be consistently examined in vivo without a large sample size.

Methods

We have developed and tested a three-dimensional in vitro model of astrocyte migration and proliferation around clinical grade ventricular catheters and into catheter holes that mimics the development of cellular outgrowth from the parenchyma that may contribute to shunt obstruction.

Results

Cell attachment and growth was observed on shunt catheters for as long as 80 days with at least 77 % viability until 51 days. The model can be used to study cellular attachment to ventricular catheters under both static and pulsatile flow conditions, which better mimic physiological cerebrospinal fluid dynamics and shunt system flow rates (0.25 mL/min, 100 pulses/min). Pulsatile flow through the ventricular catheter decreased cell attachment/growth by 63 % after 18 h. Under both conditions it was possible to observe cells accumulating around and in shunt catheter holes.

Conclusions

Alone or in combination with previously-published culture models of shunt obstruction, this model serves as a relevant test bed to analyze mechanisms of shunt failure and to test catheter modifications that will prevent cell attachment and growth.

On the fractional Eulerian numbers and equivalence of maps with long term power-law memory (integral Volterra equations of the second kind) to Grünvald-Letnikov fractional difference (differential) equations

In this paper, we consider a simple general form of a deterministic system with power-law memory whose state can be described by one variable and evolution by a generating function. A new value of the system's variable is a total (a convolution) of the generating functions of all previous values of the variable with weights, which are powers of the time passed. In discrete cases, these systems can be described by difference equations in which a fractional difference on the left hand side is equal to a total (also a convolution) of the generating functions of all previous values of the system's variable with the fractional Eulerian number weights on the right hand side. In the continuous limit, the considered systems can be described by the Grünvald-Letnikov fractional differential equations, which are equivalent to the Volterra integral equations of the second kind. New properties of the fractional Eulerian numbers and possible applications of the results are discussed.

Material characterization of in vivo and in vitro porcine brain using shear wave elasticity

Realistic computer simulation of closed head trauma requires accurate mechanical properties of brain tissue, ideally in vivo. A substantive deficiency of most existing experimental brain data is that properties were identified through in vitro mechanical testing. This study develops a novel application of shear wave elasticity imaging to assess porcine brain tissue shear modulus in vivo. Shear wave elasticity imaging is a quantitative ultrasound technique that has been used here to examine changes in brain tissue shear modulus as a function of several experimental and physiologic parameters. Animal studies were performed using two different ultrasound transducers to explore the differences in physical response between closed skull and open skull arrangements. In vivo intracranial pressure in four animals was varied over a relevant physiologic range (2-40 mmHg) and was correlated with shear wave speed and stiffness estimates in brain tissue. We found that stiffness does not vary with modulation of intracranial pressure. Additional in vitro porcine specimens (n = 14) were used to investigate variation in brain tissue stiffness with temperature, confinement, spatial location and transducer orientation. We observed a statistically significant decrease in stiffness with increased temperature (23%) and an increase in stiffness with decreasing external confinement (22-37%). This study determined the feasibility of using shear wave elasticity imaging to characterize porcine brain tissue both in vitro and in vivo. Our results underline the importance of temperature- and skull-derived boundary conditions to brain stiffness and suggest that physiologic ranges of intracranial pressure do not significantly affect in situ brain tissue properties. Shear wave elasticity imaging allowed for brain material properties to be experimentally characterized in a physiologic setting and provides a stronger basis for assessing brain injury in computational models.

Measuring the linear and nonlinear elastic properties of brain tissue with shear waves and inverse analysis

We use supersonic shear wave imaging (SSI) technique to measure not only the linear but also the nonlinear elastic properties of brain matter. Here, we tested six porcine brains ex vivo and measured the velocities of the plane shear waves induced by acoustic radiation force at different states of pre-deformation when the ultrasonic probe is pushed into the soft tissue. We relied on an inverse method based on the theory governing the propagation of small-amplitude acoustic waves in deformed solids to interpret the experimental data. We found that, depending on the subjects, the resulting initial shear modulus [Formula: see text] varies from 1.8 to 3.2 kPa, the stiffening parameter [Formula: see text] of the hyperelastic Demiray-Fung model from 0.13 to 0.73, and the third- [Formula: see text] and fourth-order [Formula: see text] constants of weakly nonlinear elasticity from [Formula: see text]1.3 to [Formula: see text]20.6 kPa and from 3.1 to 8.7 kPa, respectively. Paired [Formula: see text] test performed on the experimental results of the left and right lobes of the brain shows no significant difference. These values are in line with those reported in the literature on brain tissue, indicating that the SSI method, combined to the inverse analysis, is an efficient and powerful tool for the mechanical characterization of brain tissue, which is of great importance for computer simulation of traumatic brain injury and virtual neurosurgery.

The role of viscosity estimation for oil-in-gelatin phantom in shear wave based ultrasound elastography

Shear wave based ultrasound elastography utilizes mechanical excitation or acoustic radiation force to induce shear waves in deep tissue. The tissue response is monitored to obtain elasticity information about the tissue. During the past two decades, tissue elasticity has been extensively studied and has been used in clinical disease diagnosis. However, biological soft tissues are viscoelastic in nature. Therefore, they should be simultaneously characterized in terms of elasticity and viscosity. In this study, two shear wave-based elasticity imaging methods, shear wave dispersion ultrasound vibrometry (SDUV) and acoustic radiation force impulsive (ARFI) imaging, were compared. The discrepancy between the measurements obtained by the two methods was analyzed, and the role of viscosity was investigated. To this end, four types of gelatin phantoms containing 0%, 20%, 30% and 40% castor oil were fabricated to mimic different viscosities of soft tissue. For the SDUV method, the shear elasticity μ1 was 3.90 ± 0.27 kPa, 4.49 ± 0.16 kPa, 2.41 ± 0.33 kPa and 1.31 ± 0.09 kPa; and the shear viscosity μ2 was 1.82 ± 0.31 Pa•s, 2.41 ± 0.35 Pa•s, 2.65 ± 0.13 Pa•s and 2.89 ± 0.14 Pa•s for 0%, 20%, 30% and 40% oil, respectively in both cases. For the ARFI measurements, the shear elasticity μ was 7.30 ± 0.20 kPa, 8.20 ± 0.31 kPa, 7.42 ± 0.21 kPa and 5.90 ± 0.36 kPa for 0%, 20%, 30% and 40% oil, respectively. The SDUV results demonstrated that the elasticity first increased from 0% to 20% oil and then decreased for the 30% and 40% oil. The viscosity decreased consistently as the concentration of castor oil increased from 0% to 40%. The elasticity measured by ARFI showed the same trend as that of the SDUV but exceeded the results measured by SDUV. To clearly validate the impact of viscosity on the elasticity estimation, an independent measurement of the elasticity and viscosity by dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) was conducted on these four types of gelatin phantoms and then compared with SDUV and ARFI results. The shear elasticities obtained by DMA (3.44 ± 0.31 kPa, 4.29 ± 0.13 kPa, 2.05 ± 0.29 kPa and 1.06 ± 0.18 kPa for 0%, 20%, 30% and 40% oil, respectively) were lower than those by SDUV, whereas the shear viscosities obtained by DMA (2.52 ± 0.32 Pa·s, 3.18 ± 0.12 Pa·s, 3.98 ± 0.19 Pa·s and 4.90 ± 0.20 Pa·s for 0%, 20%, 30% and 40% oil, respectively) were greater than those obtained by SDUV. However, the DMA results showed that the trend in the elasticity and viscosity data was the same as that obtained from the SDUV and ARFI. The SDUV results demonstrated that adding castor oil changed the viscoelastic properties of the phantoms and resulted in increased dispersion of the shear waves. Viscosity can provide important and independent information about the inner state of the phantoms, in addition to the elasticity. Because the ARFI method ignores the dispersion of the shear waves, namely viscosity, it may bias the estimation of the true elasticity. This study sheds further light on the significance of the viscosity measurements in shear wave based elasticity imaging methods.

Detection of mild traumatic brain injury in rodent models using shear wave elastography: preliminary studies

OBJECTIVES

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can cause adverse physiologic changes in fluid content within the brain, which may lead to changes in tissue elasticity (eg, stiffness). This study evaluated the ability of ultrasonic shear wave elastography to observe these changes in the brain after TBI in vivo.

METHODS

Mice and rats received a mild TBI or sham surgery and were imaged acutely or 24 hours after injury using shear wave elastography, and the hemispheric stiffness values were compared.

RESULTS

Stiffness values were consistent across brain hemispheres of sham TBI rodents. By 24 hours after TBI, relative brain tissue stiffness values for mice and rats each decreased ipsilaterally and increased contralaterally, both relative to each other and compared to sham TBI rodents (P < .05). The absolute tissue elasticity value increased for rats (P < .05) but not for mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Differences between intrahemispheric stiffness values of rodent brains by 24 hours after mild TBI may reflect the observed edema and hemorrhage ipsilateral to TBI and the known reduction of cerebral blood flow in both brain hemispheres. If these hypotheses hold true, ultrasonic shear wave elastography may offer a method for detecting adverse changes in fluid content within the brain after mild TBI.

A novel technique of detecting MRI-negative lesion in focal symptomatic epilepsy: intraoperative ShearWave elastography

Focal symptomatic epilepsy is the most common form of epilepsy that can often be cured with surgery. A small proportion of patients with focal symptomatic epilepsy do not have identifiable lesions on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The most common pathology in this group is type II focal cortical dysplasia (FCD), which is a subtype of malformative brain lesion associated with medication-resistant epilepsy. We present a patient with MRI-negative focal symptomatic epilepsy who underwent invasive electrode recordings. At the time of surgery, a novel ultrasound-based technique called ShearWave Elastography (SWE) was performed. A 0.5 cc lesion was demonstrated on SWE but was absent on B-mode ultrasound and 3-T MRI. Electroencephalography (EEG), positron emission tomography (PET), and magnetoencephalography (MEG) scans demonstrated an abnormality in the right frontal region. On the basis of this finding, a depth electrode was implanted into the lesion. Surgical resection and histology confirmed the lesion to be type IIb FCD. A PowerPoint slide summarizing this article is available for download in the Supporting Information section here.

Pre-clinical study of in vivo magnetic resonance-guided bubble-enhanced heating in pig liver

Bubble-enhanced heating (BEH) can be exploited to increase heating efficiency in treatment of liver tumors with non-invasive high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU). The objectives of this study were: (i) to demonstrate the feasibility of increasing the heating efficiency of sonication exploiting BEH in pig liver in vivo using a clinical platform; (ii) to determine the acoustic threshold for such effects with real-time, motion-compensated magnetic resonance-guided thermometry; and (iii) to compare the heating patterns and thermal lesion characteristics resulting from continuous sonication and sonication including a burst pulse. The threshold acoustic power for generation of BEH in pig liver in vivo was determined using sonication of 0.5-s duration ("burst pulse") under real-time magnetic resonance thermometry. In a second step, experimental sonication composed of a burst pulse followed by continuous sonication (14.5 s) was compared with conventional sonication (15 s) of identical energy (1.8 kJ). Modification of the heating pattern at the targeted region located at a liver depth between 20 and 25 mm required 600-800 acoustic watts. The experimental group exhibited near-spherical heating with 40% mean enhancement of the maximal temperature rise as compared with the conventional sonication group, a mean shift of 7 ± 3.3 mm toward the transducer and reduction of the post-focal temperature increase. Magnetic resonance thermometry can be exploited to control acoustic BEH in vivo in the liver. By use of experimental sonication, more efficient heating can be achieved while protecting tissues located beyond the focal point.

Acoustic waves in medical imaging and diagnostics

Up until about two decades ago acoustic imaging and ultrasound imaging were synonymous. The term ultrasonography, or its abbreviated version sonography, meant an imaging modality based on the use of ultrasonic compressional bulk waves. Beginning in the 1990s, there started to emerge numerous acoustic imaging modalities based on the use of a different mode of acoustic wave: shear waves. Imaging with these waves was shown to provide very useful and very different information about the biological tissue being examined. We discuss the physical basis for the differences between these two basic modes of acoustic waves used in medical imaging and analyze the advantages associated with shear acoustic imaging. A comprehensive analysis of the range of acoustic wavelengths, velocities and frequencies that have been used in different imaging applications is presented. We discuss the potential for future shear wave imaging applications.

Local mechanical properties of white matter structures in the human brain

The noninvasive measurement of the mechanical properties of brain tissue using magnetic resonance elastography (MRE) has emerged as a promising method for investigating neurological disorders. To date, brain MRE investigations have been limited to reporting global mechanical properties, though quantification of the stiffness of specific structures in the white matter architecture may be valuable in assessing the localized effects of disease. This paper reports the mechanical properties of the corpus callosum and corona radiata measured in healthy volunteers using MRE and atlas-based segmentation. Both structures were found to be significantly stiffer than overall white matter, with the corpus callosum exhibiting greater stiffness and less viscous damping than the corona radiata. Reliability of both local and global measures was assessed through repeated experiments, and the coefficient of variation for each measure was less than 10%. Mechanical properties within the corpus callosum and corona radiata demonstrated correlations with measures from diffusion tensor imaging pertaining to axonal microstructure.

Evidence of changes in brain tissue stiffness after ischemic stroke derived from ultrasound-based elastography

OBJECTIVES

Ischemia, edema, elevated intracranial pressure, and reduced blood flow can occur in the brain as a result of ischemic stroke, including contralateral to the stroke via a process known as diaschisis. In this study, ultrasound elastography, an imaging process sensitive to the stiffness of tissue, including its relative fluid content, was used to study changes in the stiffness of individual cerebral hemispheres after transient ischemic injury.

METHODS

Elastographic images of mouse brains were collected 24 and 72 hours after middle cerebral artery occlusion. The shear moduli of both ipsilateral and contralateral brain hemispheres for these mice were measured and compared to corresponding values of control animals.

RESULTS

At 24 hours (but not 72 hours) after induction of ischemic stroke, there was a significant decrease in the shear modulus in the ipsilateral hemisphere (P < .01) and a significant increase in the shear modulus in the contralateral hemisphere compared to that of control animals (P < .01). Significant differences were also evident between ipsilateral and contralateral shear modulus values at 24 and 72 hours after infarction (P < .01 for both).

CONCLUSIONS

The differences between intrahemispheric averages of shear moduli of the brains of animals with stroke at 24 and 72 hours after stroke induction likely reflect the initial formation of edema and reduction of cerebral blood flow known to develop ipsilateral to ischemic infarction, the known transient increase in intracranial pressure, as well as the known initial reduction of blood flow and subsequent development of edema in the contralateral hemisphere (diaschisis). Thus, elastography offers a possible method to detect subtle changes in brain after ischemic stroke.

Magnetic resonance elastography reveals altered brain viscoelasticity in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

Cerebral magnetic resonance elastography (MRE) measures the viscoelastic properties of brain tissues in vivo. It was recently shown that brain viscoelasticity is reduced in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS), highlighting the potential of cerebral MRE to detect tissue pathology during neuroinflammation. To further investigate the relationship between inflammation and brain viscoelasticity, we applied MRE to a mouse model of MS, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). EAE was induced and monitored by MRE in a 7-tesla animal MRI scanner over 4 weeks. At the peak of the disease (day 14 after immunization), we detected a significant decrease in both the storage modulus (G′) and the loss modulus (G″), indicating that both the elasticity and the viscosity of the brain are reduced during acute inflammation. Interestingly, these parameters normalized at a later time point (day 28) corresponding to the clinical recovery phase. Consistent with this, we observed a clear correlation between viscoelastic tissue alteration and the magnitude of perivascular T cell infiltration at both day 14 and day 28. Hence, acute neuroinflammation is associated with reduced mechanical cohesion of brain tissues. Moreover, the reduction of brain viscoelasticity appears to be a reversible process, which is restored when inflammation resolves. For the first time, our study has demonstrated the applicability of cerebral MRE in EAE, and showed that this novel imaging technology is highly sensitive to early tissue alterations resulting from the inflammatory processes. Thus, MRE may serve to monitor early stages of perivascular immune infiltration during neuroinflammation.

Supersonic shear wave elastography of in vivo pig kidney: influence of blood pressure, urinary pressure and tissue anisotropy

The in vivo influence of renal anisotropy and of urinary and vascular pressure on elasticity values using ultrasonic supersonic shear wave elastography was studied in pigs. Experiments were conducted in agreement with the European Commission guidelines and directives of the French Research Ministry. Six kidneys in three pigs were studied in vivo. Elasticity of renal cortex and medulla was quantified through the shear modulus (μ) by using the supersonic shear imaging technique with an 8 MHz linear ultrasound probe. All measurements were done peroperatively both in the axis and perpendicular to the main axis of pyramids, in normal condition, after progressive increase of urinary pressure, and after renal artery and renal vein ligation. In normal conditions, cortical (C) and medullary (M) elasticity values were always higher when acquisitions were realized with the ultrasound main axis perpendicular to main pyramid axis (C(//): 7.7 ± 2.3 kPa; M(//): 8.7 ± 2.5 kPa) than parallel (C(⊥): 6.9 ± 1.4 kPa; M(⊥): 6.6 ± 2.3 kPa), demonstrating an effect of renal anisotropy. In renal cortex, two bands were separated, inner cortex showing higher elasticity values (IC(⊥): 8.1 ± 1.9 kPa) than outer cortex (OC(⊥): 6.9 ± 1.4 kPa). Renal artery and renal vein ligation induced a decrease and an increase of elasticity respectively. Parenchymal elasticity increased linearly with elevation of urinary pressure. Intrarenal elasticity values vary with tissue anisotropy and, with vascular and urinary pressure levels. These parameters have to be taken into account for interpretation of tissue changes. Separation of outer and inner cortex could be attributable to perfusion differences.

Multifrequency inversion in magnetic resonance elastography

Time-harmonic shear wave elastography is capable of measuring viscoelastic parameters in living tissue. However, finite tissue boundaries and waveguide effects give rise to wave interferences which are not accounted for by standard elasticity reconstruction methods. Furthermore, the viscoelasticity of tissue causes dispersion of the complex shear modulus, rendering the recovered moduli frequency dependent. Therefore, we here propose the use of multifrequency wave data from magnetic resonance elastography (MRE) for solving the inverse problem of viscoelasticity reconstruction by an algebraic least-squares solution based on the springpot model. Advantages of the method are twofold: (i) amplitude nulls appearing in single-frequency standing wave patterns are mitigated and (ii) the dispersion of storage and loss modulus with drive frequency is taken into account by the inversion procedure, thereby avoiding subsequent model fitting. As a result, multifrequency inversion produces fewer artifacts in the viscoelastic parameter map than standard single-frequency parameter recovery and may thus support image-based viscoelasticity measurement. The feasibility of the method is demonstrated by simulated wave data and MRE experiments on a phantom and in vivo human brain. Implemented as a clinical method, multifrequency inversion may improve the diagnostic value of time-harmonic MRE in a large variety of applications.

AN OVERVIEW OF ELASTOGRAPHY - AN EMERGING BRANCH OF MEDICAL IMAGING

From times immemorial manual palpation served as a source of information on the state of soft tissues and allowed detection of various diseases accompanied by changes in tissue elasticity. During the last two decades, the ancient art of palpation gained new life due to numerous emerging elasticity imaging (EI) methods. Areas of applications of EI in medical diagnostics and treatment monitoring are steadily expanding. Elasticity imaging methods are emerging as commercial applications, a true testament to the progress and importance of the field.In this paper we present a brief history and theoretical basis of EI, describe various techniques of EI and, analyze their advantages and limitations, and overview main clinical applications. We present a classification of elasticity measurement and imaging techniques based on the methods used for generating a stress in the tissue (external mechanical force, internal ultrasound radiation force, or an internal endogenous force), and measurement of the tissue response. The measurement method can be performed using differing physical principles including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultrasound imaging, X-ray imaging, optical and acoustic signals.Until recently, EI was largely a research method used by a few select institutions having the special equipment needed to perform the studies. Since 2005 however, increasing numbers of mainstream manufacturers have added EI to their ultrasound systems so that today the majority of manufacturers offer some sort of Elastography or tissue stiffness imaging on their clinical systems. Now it is safe to say that some sort of elasticity imaging may be performed on virtually all types of focal and diffuse disease. Most of the new applications are still in the early stages of research, but a few are becoming common applications in clinical practice.

Acoustic radiation force-based elasticity imaging methods

Conventional diagnostic ultrasound images portray differences in the acoustic properties of soft tissues, whereas ultrasound-based elasticity images portray differences in the elastic properties of soft tissues (i.e. stiffness, viscosity). The benefit of elasticity imaging lies in the fact that many soft tissues can share similar ultrasonic echogenicities, but may have different mechanical properties that can be used to clearly visualize normal anatomy and delineate pathological lesions. Acoustic radiation force-based elasticity imaging methods use acoustic radiation force to transiently deform soft tissues, and the dynamic displacement response of those tissues is measured ultrasonically and is used to estimate the tissue's mechanical properties. Both qualitative images and quantitative elasticity metrics can be reconstructed from these measured data, providing complimentary information to both diagnose and longitudinally monitor disease progression. Recently, acoustic radiation force-based elasticity imaging techniques have moved from the laboratory to the clinical setting, where clinicians are beginning to characterize tissue stiffness as a diagnostic metric, and commercial implementations of radiation force-based ultrasonic elasticity imaging are beginning to appear on the commercial market. This article provides an overview of acoustic radiation force-based elasticity imaging, including a review of the relevant soft tissue material properties, a review of radiation force-based methods that have been proposed for elasticity imaging, and a discussion of current research and commercial realizations of radiation force based-elasticity imaging technologies.