High-Speed In Situ Observation System for Sonoporation of Cells With Size- and Position-Controlled Microbubbles

Influence of cell shape on sonoporation efficiency in microbubble-facilitated delivery using micropatterned cell arrays

Microbubble-facilitated sonoporation is a rapid, versatile, and non-viral intracellular delivery technique with potential for clinical and ex vivo cell engineering applications. We developed a micropatterning-based approach to investigate the impact of cell shape on sonoporation efficacy. Cationic microbubbles were employed to enhance sonoporation by binding to the cell membrane electrostatically. NIH/3T3 fibroblasts were micropatterned into circle, square, triangle, and rectangle. A two-plate system ensured high-throughput and efficient sonoporation by controlling cationic microbubble-cell attachment. High-speed video microscopy captured the acoustic dynamics of microbubbles under short ultrasound pulses. Our findings reveal that for NIH/3T3 fibroblasts, rectangular cells achieved the highest sonoporation and survival rate, while square-shaped cells demonstrated the greatest propidium iodide uptake. Triangle-shaped NIH/3T3 fibroblasts displayed an initial rise then a plateau in the sonoporation and survival rate as the ultrasound pulse duration increased from 10 cycles to 100 cycles, and then to 200 cycles. Conversely, rectangle-shaped cells showed a decrease followed by a stabilization. Circle-shaped and rectangle-shaped HeLa cells exhibited similar sonoporation outcomes, which were not as effective as NIH/3T3 fibroblasts. This study underscores the significance of cell shape in optimizing sonoporation efficiency and highlights the potential of combining micropatterning with controlled targeting sonoporation to advance intracellular delivery technologies.

Ultrasound-responsive microbubbles and nanodroplets: A pathway to targeted drug delivery

Ultrasound-responsive agents have shown great potential as targeted drug delivery agents, effectively augmenting cell permeability and facilitating drug absorption. This review focuses on two specific agents, microbubbles and nanodroplets, and provides a sequential overview of their drug delivery process. Particular emphasis is given to the mechanical response of the agents under ultrasound, and the subsequent physical and biological effects on the cells. Finally, the state-of-the-art in their pre-clinical and clinical implementation are discussed. Throughout the review, major challenges that need to be overcome in order to accelerate their clinical translation are highlighted.

An Acoustic Device for Ultra High-Speed Quantification of Cell Strain During Cell-Microbubble Interaction

Microbubbles utilize high-frequency oscillations under ultrasound stimulation to induce a range of therapeutic effects in cells, often through mechanical stimulation and permeabilization of cells. One of the largest challenges remaining in the field is the characterization of interactions between cells and microbubbles at therapeutically relevant frequencies. Technical limitations, such as employing sufficient frame rates and obtaining sufficient image resolution, restrict the quantification of the cell's mechanical response to oscillating microbubbles. Here, a novel methodology was developed to address many of these limitations and improve the image resolution of cell-microbubble interactions at high frame rates. A compact acoustic device was designed to house cells and microbubbles as well as a therapeutically relevant acoustic field while being compatible with a Shimadzu HPV-X camera. Cell viability tests confirmed the successful culture and proliferation of cells, and the attachment of DSPC- and cationic DSEPC-microbubbles to osteosarcoma cells was quantified. Microbubble oscillation was observed within the device at a frame rate of 5 million FPS, confirming suitable acoustic field generation and ultra high-speed image capture. High spatial resolution in these images revealed observable deformation in cells following microbubble oscillation and supported the first use of digital image correlation for strain quantification in a single cell. The novel acoustic device provided a simple, effective method for improving the spatial resolution of cell-microbubble interaction images, presenting the opportunity to develop an understanding of the mechanisms driving the therapeutic effects of oscillating microbubbles upon ultrasound exposure.

Coupling Two Ultra-high-Speed Cameras to Elucidate Ultrasound Contrast-Mediated Imaging and Therapy

Ultrasound contrast-mediated medical imaging and therapy both rely on the dynamics of micron- and nanometer-sized ultrasound cavitation nuclei, such as phospholipid-coated microbubbles and phase-change droplets. Ultrasound cavitation nuclei respond non-linearly to ultrasound on a nanosecond time scale that necessitates the use of ultra-high-speed imaging to fully visualize these dynamics in detail. In this study, we developed an ultra-high-speed optical imaging system that can record up to 20 million frames per second (Mfps) by coupling two small-sized, commercially available, 10-Mfps cameras. The timing and reliability of the interleaved cameras needed to achieve 20 Mfps was validated using two synchronized light-emitting diode strobe lights. Once verified, ultrasound-activated microbubble responses were recorded and analyzed. A unique characteristic of this coupled system is its ability to be reconfigured to provide orthogonal observations at 10 Mfps. Acoustic droplet vaporization was imaged from two orthogonal views, by which the 3-D dynamics of the phase transition could be visualized. This optical imaging system provides the temporal resolution and experimental flexibility needed to further elucidate the dynamics of ultrasound cavitation nuclei to potentiate the clinical translation of ultrasound-mediated imaging and therapy developments.

Ultrasound-Responsive Cavitation Nuclei for Therapy and Drug Delivery

Therapeutic ultrasound strategies that harness the mechanical activity of cavitation nuclei for beneficial tissue bio-effects are actively under development. The mechanical oscillations of circulating microbubbles, the most widely investigated cavitation nuclei, which may also encapsulate or shield a therapeutic agent in the bloodstream, trigger and promote localized uptake. Oscillating microbubbles can create stresses either on nearby tissue or in surrounding fluid to enhance drug penetration and efficacy in the brain, spinal cord, vasculature, immune system, biofilm or tumors. This review summarizes recent investigations that have elucidated interactions of ultrasound and cavitation nuclei with cells, the treatment of tumors, immunotherapy, the blood-brain and blood-spinal cord barriers, sonothrombolysis, cardiovascular drug delivery and sonobactericide. In particular, an overview of salient ultrasound features, drug delivery vehicles, therapeutic transport routes and pre-clinical and clinical studies is provided. Successful implementation of ultrasound and cavitation nuclei-mediated drug delivery has the potential to change the way drugs are administered systemically, resulting in more effective therapeutics and less-invasive treatments.

Cellular Bioeffect Investigations on Low-Intensity Pulsed Ultrasound and Sonoporation: Platform Design and Flow Cytometry Protocol

At low-intensity levels, ultrasound can potentially generate therapeutic effects on living cells, and it can trigger sonoporation when microbubbles (MBs) are present to facilitate drug delivery. Yet, our foundational knowledge of low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) and sonoporation remains to be critically weak because the pertinent cellular bioeffects have not been rigorously studied. In this article, we present a population-based experimental protocol that can effectively foster investigations on the mechanistic bioeffects of LIPUS and sonoporation over a cell population. Walkthroughs of different methodological details are presented, including the fabrication of the ultrasound exposure platform and its calibration, as well as the design of a bioassay procedure that uses fluorescent tracers and flow cytometry to isolate sonicated cells with similar characteristics. An application example is also presented to illustrate how our protocol can be used to investigate the downstream cellular bioeffects of leukemia cells. We show that, with 1-MHz LIPUS exposure (with 29.1 J/cm² delivered acoustic energy density), variations in viability and morphology would be found among different types of sonicated leukemia cells (HL-60, Molt-4) in the absence and presence of MBs. Taken altogether, this article provides a reference on how cellular bioeffect experiments on LIPUS and sonoporation can be planned meticulously to acquire strong observations that are critical to establish the biological foundations for therapeutic applications.