Longitudinal relationships among depressive symptoms, cortisol, and brain atrophy in the neocortex and the hippocampus

Mapping pathways to neuronal atrophy in healthy, mid-aged adults: From chronic stress to systemic inflammation to neurodegeneration?

Growing evidence implicates systemic inflammation in the loss of structural brain integrity in natural ageing and disorder development. Chronic stress and glucocorticoid exposure can potentiate inflammatory processes and may also be linked to neuronal atrophy, particularly in the hippocampus and the human neocortex. To improve understanding of emerging maladaptive interactions between stress and inflammation, this study examined evidence for glucocorticoid- and inflammation-mediated neurodegeneration in healthy mid-aged adults. N = 169 healthy adults (mean age = 39.4, 64.5% female) were sampled from the general population in the context of the ReSource Project. Stress, inflammation and neuronal atrophy were quantified using physiological indices of chronic stress (hair cortisol (HCC) and cortisone (HEC) concentration), systemic inflammation (interleukin-6 (IL-6), high-sensitive C-reactive protein (hs-CRP)), the systemic inflammation index (SII), hippocampal volume (HCV) and cortical thickness (CT) in regions of interest. Structural equation models were used to examine evidence for pathways from stress and inflammation to neuronal atrophy. Model fit indices indicated good representation of stress, inflammation, and neurological data through the constructed models (CT model: robust RMSEA = 0.041, robust χ2 = 910.90; HCV model: robust RMSEA <0.001, robust χ2 = 40.95). Among inflammatory indices, only the SII was positively associated with hair cortisol as one indicator of chronic stress (β = 0.18, p < 0.05). Direct and indirect pathways from chronic stress and systemic inflammation to cortical thickness or hippocampal volume were non-significant. In exploratory analysis, the SII was inversely related to mean cortical thickness. Our results emphasize the importance of considering the multidimensionality of systemic inflammation and chronic stress, with various indicators that may represent different aspects of the systemic reaction. We conclude that inflammation and glucocorticoid-mediated neurodegeneration indicated by IL-6 and hs-CRP and HCC and HEC may only emerge during advanced ageing and disorder processes, still the SII could be a promising candidate for detecting associations between inflammation and neurodegeneration in younger and healthy samples. Future work should examine these pathways in prospective longitudinal designs, for which the present investigation serves as a baseline.

Persistence of amygdala hyperactivity to subliminal negative emotion processing in the long-term course of depression

Biased emotion processing has been suggested to underlie the etiology and maintenance of depression. Neuroimaging studies have shown mood-congruent alterations in amygdala activity in patients with acute depression, even during early, automatic stages of emotion processing. However, due to a lack of prospective studies over periods longer than 8 weeks, it is unclear whether these neurofunctional abnormalities represent a persistent correlate of depression even in remission. In this prospective case-control study, we aimed to examine brain functional correlates of automatic emotion processing in the long-term course of depression. In a naturalistic design, n = 57 patients with acute major depressive disorder (MDD) and n = 37 healthy controls (HC) were assessed with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) at baseline and after 2 years. Patients were divided into two subgroups according to their course of illness during the study period (n = 37 relapse, n = 20 no-relapse). During fMRI, participants underwent an affective priming task that assessed emotion processing of subliminally presented sad and happy compared to neutral face stimuli. A group × time × condition (3 × 2 × 2) ANOVA was performed for the amygdala as region-of-interest (ROI). At baseline, there was a significant group × condition interaction, resulting from amygdala hyperactivity to sad primes in patients with MDD compared to HC, whereas no difference between groups emerged for happy primes. In both patient subgroups, amygdala hyperactivity to sad primes persisted after 2 years, regardless of relapse or remission at follow-up. The results suggest that amygdala hyperactivity during automatic processing of negative stimuli persists during remission and represents a trait rather than a state marker of depression. Enduring neurofunctional abnormalities may reflect a consequence of or a vulnerability to depression.

The impact of poverty and socioeconomic status on brain, behaviour, and development: a unified framework

In this article, we, for the first time, provide a comprehensive overview and unified framework of the impact of poverty and low socioeconomic status (SES) on the brain and behaviour. While there are many studies on the impact of low SES on the brain (including cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and even neurotransmitters) and behaviours (including educational attainment, language development, development of psychopathological disorders), prior studies did not integrate behavioural, educational, and neural findings in one framework. Here, we argue that the impact of poverty and low SES on the brain and behaviour are interrelated. Specifically, based on prior studies, due to a lack of resources, poverty and low SES are associated with poor nutrition, high levels of stress in caregivers and their children, and exposure to socio-environmental hazards. These psychological and physical injuries impact the normal development of several brain areas and neurotransmitters. Impaired functioning of the amygdala can lead to the development of psychopathological disorders, while impaired hippocampus and cortex functions are associated with a delay in learning and language development as well as poor academic performance. This in turn perpetuates poverty in children, leading to a vicious cycle of poverty and psychological/physical impairments. In addition to providing economic aid to economically disadvantaged families, interventions should aim to tackle neural abnormalities caused by poverty and low SES in early childhood. Importantly, acknowledging brain abnormalities due to poverty in early childhood can help increase economic equity. In the current study, we provide a comprehensive list of future studies to help understand the impact of poverty on the brain.

Nutrition as the foundation for successful aging: a focus on dietary protein and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids

Skeletal muscle plays a critical role throughout the aging process. People living with sarcopenia, a progressive and generalized loss of skeletal muscle mass and function, often experience diminished quality of life, which can be attributed to a long period of decline and disability. Therefore, it is important to identify modifiable factors that preserve skeletal muscle and promote successful aging (SA). In this review, SA was defined as (1) low cardiometabolic risk, (2) preservation of physical function, and (3) positive state of wellbeing, with nutrition as an integral component. Several studies identify nutrition, specifically high-quality protein (eg, containing all essential amino acids), and long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), as positive regulators of SA. Recently, an additive anabolic effect of protein and n-3 PUFAs has been identified in skeletal muscle of older adults. Evidence further suggests that the additive effect of protein and n-3 PUFAs may project beyond skeletal muscle anabolism and promote SA. The key mechanism(s) behind the enhanced effects of intake of protein and n-3 PUFAs needs to be defined. The first objective of this review is to evaluate skeletal muscle as a driver of cardiometabolic health, physical function, and wellbeing to promote SA. The second objective is to examine observational and interventional evidence of protein and n-3 PUFAs on skeletal muscle to promote SA. The final objective is to propose mechanisms by which combined optimal intake of high-quality protein and n-3 PUFAs likely play a key role in SA. Current evidence suggests that increased intake of protein above the Recommended Dietary Allowance and n-3 PUFAs above the Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommendations for late middle-aged and older adults is required to maintain skeletal muscle mass and to promote SA, potentially through the mechanistical target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1).

The Interaction of LAMA2 and Duration of Illness Affects the Thickness of the Right Transverse Temporal Gyrus in Major Depressive Disorder

Background

Depression is a heritable brain disorder. Laminin genes were recently identified to affect the brain's overall thickness through neurogenesis, differentiation, and migration in depression. This study aims to explore the effects of the LAMA2's single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP), a subunit gene of laminin, on the detected brain regions of patients with major depressive disorder (MDD).

Methods

The study included 89 patients with MDD and 60 healthy controls with T1-weighted structural magnetic resonance imaging and blood samples for genotyping. The interactions between LAMA2 gene SNPs and diagnosis as well as duration of illness (DOI) were explored on brain measures controlled for age, gender, and site.

Results

The right transverse temporal gyrus and right parahippocampal gyrus showed reduced thickness in MDD. Almost all seven LAMA2 SNPs showed significant interactions with diagnosis on both gyrus (corrected p < 0.05 or trending). In MDD, rs6569604, rs2229848, rs2229849, rs2229850, and rs2784895 interacted with DOI on the right transverse temporal gyrus (corrected p < 0.05), but not the right parahippocampal gyrus.

Conclusion

The thickness of the right transverse temporal gyrus in patients with MDD may be affected by LAMA2 gene and DOI.

Vascular Schizophrenia-like Psychosis in Older Adults

BACKGROUND

The aims of this study were to analyze prevalence and severity of vascular risk factors in older patients referred to our clinic due to onset of Very Late-Onset Schizophrenia-Like Psychosis (VLOSLP) and to create a specific phenotype based on pathophysiological insight rather than age of onset.

METHODS

In a longitudinal study, 103 (M = 39, F = 64; mean age of 80.32 ± 7.65 years) patients were evaluated with cognitive, neuropsychiatric, and functional assessment scales. Blood concentration of hemoglobin (Hb), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), platelets, total protein test (TPT), creatinine, azotemia, glycemia, total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), uric acid (UA), sodium (Na), potassium (K), chlorine (Cl), calcium (Ca), folate, vitamin B12 (Vit-B12), and homocysteine were measured. Presence/absence of tobacco use, alcohol consumption, psychoactive substance use, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, diabetes mellitus, and history of vascular disease were collected.

RESULTS

Females were more apathetic than males (NPI-Apathy: p = 0.040). Males had a significantly higher level of Hb (p = 0.019) and UA (p = 0.001), and a lower level of platelets (p = 0.004) and Ca (p = 0.003), and used more tobacco (p = 0.046) and alcohol (p = 0.024) than females. Comparing patients < 80 and ≥80 years, we found differences in frequency of vascular risk factors among men (p = 0.027). In total, 102 patients were treated for psychosis (59.16% of them were using atypical antipsychotics).

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study could be useful for a progressive demonstration of the causal relationship between cardiac and cerebral vascular events and VLOSLP.

Cerebellum and hippocampus abnormalities in patients with insomnia comorbid depression: a study on cerebral blood perfusion and functional connectivity

Chronic insomnia disorder and major depressive disorder are highly-occurred mental diseases with extensive social harm. The comorbidity of these two diseases is commonly seen in clinical practice, but the mechanism remains unclear. To observe the characteristics of cerebral blood perfusion and functional connectivity in patients, so as to explore the potential pathogenesis and biological imaging markers, thereby improving the understanding of their comorbidity mechanism. 44 patients with chronic insomnia disorder comorbid major depressive disorder and 43 healthy controls were recruited in this study. The severity of insomnia and depression were assessed by questionnaire. The cerebral blood perfusion and functional connectivity values of participants were obtained to, analyze their correlation with questionnaire scores. The cerebral blood flow in cerebellum, vermis, right hippocampus, left parahippocampal gyrus of patients were reduced, which was negatively related to the severity of insomnia or depression. The connectivities of left cerebellum-right putamen and right hippocampus-left inferior frontal gyrus were increased, showing positive correlations with the severity of insomnia and depression. Decreased connectivities of left cerebellum-left fusiform gyrus, left cerebellum-left occipital lobe, right hippocampus-right paracentral lobule, right hippocampus-right precentral gyrus were partially associated with insomnia or depression. The connectivity of right hippocampus-left inferior frontal gyrus may mediate between insomnia and depression. Insomnia and depression can cause changes in cerebral blood flow and brain function. Changes in the cerebellar and hippocampal regions are the result of insomnia and depression. They reflect abnormalities in sleep and emotion regulation. That may be involved in the pathogenesis of comorbidity.

Serum cortisol is negatively related to hippocampal volume, brain structure, and memory performance in healthy aging and Alzheimer's disease

Objective

Elevated cortisol levels have been frequently reported in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and linked to brain atrophy, especially of the hippocampus. Besides, high cortisol levels have been shown to impair memory performance and increase the risk of developing AD in healthy individuals. We investigated the associations between serum cortisol levels, hippocampal volume, gray matter volume and memory performance in healthy aging and AD.

Methods

In our cross-sectional study, we analyzed the relationships between morning serum cortisol levels, verbal memory performance, hippocampal volume, and whole-brain voxel-wise gray matter volume in an independent sample of 29 healthy seniors (HS) and 29 patients along the spectrum of biomarker-based AD.

Results

Cortisol levels were significantly elevated in patients with AD as compared to HS, and higher cortisol levels were correlated with worse memory performance in AD. Furthermore, higher cortisol levels were significantly associated with smaller left hippocampal volumes in HS and indirectly negatively correlated to memory function through hippocampal volume. Higher cortisol levels were further related to lower gray matter volume in the hippocampus and temporal and parietal areas in the left hemisphere in both groups. The strength of this association was similar in HS and AD.

Conclusion

In AD, cortisol levels are elevated and associated with worse memory performance. Furthermore, in healthy seniors, higher cortisol levels show a detrimental relationship with brain regions typically affected by AD. Thus, increased cortisol levels seem to be indirectly linked to worse memory function even in otherwise healthy individuals. Cortisol may therefore not only serve as a biomarker of increased risk for AD, but maybe even more importantly, as an early target for preventive and therapeutic interventions.

Psychosocial health modifies associations between HPA-axis function and brain structure in older age

BACKGROUND

Dysregulation of the negative feedback loop of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis may have damaging effects on the brain, potentially under influence of psychosocial health factors. We studied associations between functioning of the negative feedback loop of HPA-axis, measured with a very low-dose dexamethasone suppression test (DST), and brain structure in middle-aged and older adults, and whether these associations were modified by psychosocial health.

METHODS

From 2006 to 2008, 1259 participants (mean age 57.6 ± 6.4, 59.6 % female) of the population-based Rotterdam Study completed a very low-dose DST (0.25 mg) and underwent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain. Self-reported psychosocial health (depressive symptoms, loneliness, marital status, perceived social support) were assessed in the same time period. Multivariable linear and logistic regression were used to study cross-sectional associations between cortisol response and brain volumetrics, cerebral small vessel disease markers and white matter structural integrity. To assess the effect of psychosocial health on these associations, analyses were further stratified for psychosocial health markers.

RESULTS

Cortisol response was not associated with markers of global brain structure in the overall study sample. However, in participants with clinically relevant depressive symptoms, a diminished cortisol response was associated with smaller white matter volume (mean difference: - 1.00 mL, 95 %CI = - 1.89;- 0.10) and smaller white matter hyperintensity volume (mean difference: - 0.03 mL (log), 95 %CI = - 0.05;0.00). In participants with low/moderate perceived social support compared to those with high social support, a diminished cortisol response was associated with larger gray matter volume (mean difference: 0.70 mL, 95 %CI = 0.01;1.39) and higher fractional anisotropy (standardized mean difference 0.03, 95 %CI = 0.00;0.06).

CONCLUSION

Diminished function of the HPA-axis is differently associated with brain structure in community-dwelling middle-aged and older adults with clinically relevant depressive symptoms or suboptimal social support, but not in adults without depressive symptoms or with optimal social support.

Association between cortisol and aging-related hippocampus volume changes in community-dwelling older adults: a 7-year follow-up study

BACKGROUND

Identifying peripheral biomarkers related to modifiable risk factors to prevent dementia at an early stage will be extremely beneficial. We have been studying how older adults can maintain their mental health and continue to live in a familiar community. The aim of this study is to investigate the association between serum cortisol levels and brain volume among older adults in rural Japan.

METHODS

This was a longitudinal study conducted in Kurokawa-cho, Imari, Saga Prefecture, Japan, among people aged 65 years and above, as reported previously. We conducted a survey twice. The first survey was conducted from October 2009 to March 2011 (Timepoint 1) and the second was conducted from November 2016 to September 2017 (Timepoint 2). Blood samples for serum cortisol levels analysis were collected from participants at Timepoint 1. Serum cortisol levels were measured using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The participants underwent brain MRI examinations, and Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR) for cognitive function assessment at Timepoint 1 and Timepoint 2. We obtained 70 participants (16 men, mean age 72.69 ± 3.18 years; 54 women, mean age 72.69 ± 4.60 years, at Timepoint 1) for analysis. Correlation analysis was performed between serum cortisol levels at baseline (Timepoint 1) and brain volume (Timepoint 1, Timepoint 2, and Timepoint 1-Timepoint 2 difference) using voxel-based morphometry method.

RESULTS

There was no significant difference in serum cortisol levels between men (72.32 ± 17.30 ng/ml) and women (76.60 ± 21.12 ng/ml) at baseline. Additionally, no effect of blood collection time on cortisol levels was observed in these participants. Small volume correction analysis at the cluster level by applying multiple comparison corrections (family-wise error; P < 0.05) showed a negative correlation between serum cortisol levels (Timepoint 1) and brain volume (Timepoint 2) within the region containing the left hippocampus.

CONCLUSIONS

Serum cortisol levels may serve as a peripheral biomarker of age-related volume changes involving the hippocampus in older adults aged 65 years and above.

"Moving on Up? Neighborhood Status and Racism-Related Distress among Black Americans"

At all levels of socioeconomic status, Black Americans can expect to live shorter and sicker lives than their White counterparts. This study advances the perspective that anti-Black stigma from Whites precludes Blacks from reaping the full health rewards of higher status, particularly within the context of neighborhoods. To test this hypothesis, I merge census data with rich survey and biomarker data from the Nashville Stress and Health Study, a representative sample of Black and White adults from Davidson County, Tennessee (n = 1,252). Initially, I find that Blacks who reside in higher-status and mostly White communities exhibit lower levels of neuroendocrine stress hormones, relative to their peers living in disadvantaged Black neighborhoods. But Blacks in higher-status areas also report more perceived discrimination. In turn, perceived discrimination is associated with chronic bodily pain, as well as elevated stress hormones and blood pressure tied to high goal-striving stress, or fears of being blocked from reaching life goals. After accounting for racism-related stressors, Blacks exhibit comparable levels of physiological distress regardless of neighborhood context. The inverse is true for Whites, who report fewer stressors in higher-status neighborhoods, and less physiological distress than Blacks overall. Findings are discussed within the context of social evolutionary theories of the human brain and are dovetailed with broader racial health disparities in the United States.

Factors Influencing Change in Brain-Predicted Age Difference in a Cohort of Healthy Older Individuals

Background:

There is considerable variability in the rate at which we age biologically, and the brain is particularly susceptible to the effects of aging.

Objective:

We examined the test-retest reliability of brain age at one- and three-year intervals and identified characteristics that predict the longitudinal change in brain-predicted age difference (brain-PAD, defined by deviations of brain age from chronological age).

Methods:

T1-weighted magnetic resonance images were acquired at three timepoints from 497 community-dwelling adults (73.8±3.5 years at baseline, 48% were female). Brain age was estimated from whole brain volume, using a publicly available algorithm trained on an independent dataset. Linear mixed models were used, adjusting for sex, age, and age².

Results:

Excellent retest reliability of brain age was observed over one and three years. We identified a significant sex difference in brain-PAD, where a faster rate of brain aging (worsening in brain age relative to chronological age) was observed in men, and this finding replicated in secondary analyses. The effect size, however, was relatively weak, equivalent to 0.16 years difference per year. A higher score in physical health related quality of life and verbal fluency were associated with a faster rate of brain aging, while depression was linked to a slower rate of brain aging, but these findings were not robust.

Conclusion:

Our study provides consistent evidence that older men have slightly faster brain atrophy than women. Given the sparsity of longitudinal research on brain age in older populations, future prospective studies are needed to confirm our findings.

Depressive symptom profiles predict dementia onset and brain pathology in older persons. The AGES-Reykjavik study

Late-life depression (LLD) increases risk for dementia and brain pathology, but possibly this is only true for one or more symptom profiles of LLD. In 4354 participants (76 ± 5 years; 58% female) from the Age, Gene/Environment Susceptibility (AGES)-Reykjavik Study, we identified five LLD symptom profiles, based on the Geriatric Depression Scale-15 (no LLD (57%); apathy (31%); apathy with emptiness (2%), mild LLD (8%) and severe LLD (2%)). Cox regression analyses showed that severe LLD, mild LLD and apathy increased risk of dementia up to 12 years, compared to no LLD. Additionally, hippocampal volume loss and white matter lesion increase, were assessed on 1.5 T MR images, at baseline and after 5 years follow-up. Only severe LLD showed increased WML volume over time, but not on hippocampal volume loss. WML increase over time mediated partially the relation between mild LLD and dementia but not for the other symptom profiles. It appears that hippocampal atrophy and LLD are independent predictors for dementia incidence, whereas for mild LLD the risk for dementia is partially mediated by WML changes.

MRI Study of Cerebral Cortical Thickness in Patients with Herpes Zoster and Postherpetic Neuralgia

Objective

To measure the changes in cerebral cortical thickness in patients with herpes zoster (HZ) and postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) by surface-based morphometry (SBM) and further estimate its correlation with clinical scores.

Materials and Methods

Twenty-nine HZ patients, 30 PHN patients and 30 well-matched healthy controls (HCs) were included. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data from all subjects were collected and then analyzed by SBM. The changes in cortical thickness among the HZ, PHN and HC groups were analyzed by ANOVA and correlated with clinical scores.

Results

The thickness of the bilateral primary visual cortex (V1, V2) and right primary visual cortex (V3), left somatosensory cortex (L3A), right anterior cingulate gyrus and medial prefrontal cortex (RS32) increased in PHN group, and the thickness the left insular and frontal opercular cortex (LFOP4), left motor cortex (L3B), and right superior temporal visual cortex (RSTV) were decreased in the HZ and PHN groups compared to the HC group. The thickness measurements of RS32, LFOP4, and (L3B) in HZ and PHN patients were correlated with the duration of disease. In HZ and PHN patients, the Hamilton Anxiety Scale (HAMA) and Hamilton Depression Scale (HAMD) scores were significantly positively correlated.

Conclusion

Changes in cortical thickness in the areas related to sensory, motor, and cognitive/emotional changes in patients with PHN affect the neuroplasticity process of the brain, which may be the reason for the transformation of HZ into PHN and provide a possible explanation for the neuropathological mechanism of pain persistence in PHN patients.

Data-Driven Analyses of Longitudinal Hippocampal Imaging Trajectories: Discrimination and Biomarker Prediction of Change Classes

BACKGROUND

Hippocampal atrophy is a well-known biomarker of neurodegeneration, such as that observed in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although distributions of hippocampal volume trajectories for asymptomatic individuals often reveal substantial heterogeneity, it is unclear whether interpretable trajectory classes can be objectively detected and used for prediction analyses.

OBJECTIVE

To detect and predict hippocampal trajectory classes in a computationally competitive context using established AD-related risk factors/biomarkers.

METHODS

We used biomarker/risk factor and longitudinal MRI data in asymptomatic adults from the AD Neuroimaging Initiative (n = 351; Mean = 75 years; 48.7% female). First, we applied latent class growth analyses to left (LHC) and right (RHC) hippocampal trajectory distributions to identify distinct classes. Second, using random forest analyses, we tested 38 multi-modal biomarkers/risk factors for their relative importance in discriminating the lower (potentially elevated atrophy risk) from the higher (potentially reduced risk) class.

RESULTS

For both LHC and RHC trajectory distribution analyses, we observed three distinct trajectory classes. Three biomarkers/risk factors predicted membership in LHC and RHC lower classes: male sex, higher education, and lower plasma Aβ1-42. Four additional factors selectively predicted membership in the lower LHC class: lower plasma tau and Aβ1-40, higher depressive symptomology, and lower body mass index.

CONCLUSION

Data-driven analyses of LHC and RHC trajectories detected three classes underlying the heterogeneous distributions. Machine learning analyses determined three common and four unique biomarkers/risk factors discriminating the higher and lower LHC/RHC classes. Our sequential analytic approach produced evidence that the dynamics of preclinical hippocampal trajectories can be predicted by AD-related biomarkers/risk factors from multiple modalities.

Abnormal Fractional Amplitude of Low-Frequency Fluctuation as a Potential Imaging Biomarker for First-Episode Major Depressive Disorder: A Resting-State fMRI Study and Support Vector Machine Analysis

Objective: Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a psychiatric disorder with serious negative health outcomes; however, there is no reliable method of diagnosis. This study explored the clinical diagnostic value of the fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation (fALFF) based on the support vector machine (SVM) method for the diagnosis of MDD.

Methods: A total of 198 first-episode MDD patients and 234 healthy controls were involved in this study, and all participants underwent resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanning. Imaging data were analyzed with the fALFF and SVM methods.

Results: Compared with the healthy controls, the first-episode MDD patients showed higher fALFF in the left mid cingulum, right precuneus, and left superior frontal gyrus (SFG). The increased fALFF in these three brain regions was positively correlated with the executive control reaction time (ECRT), and the increased fALFF in the left mid cingulum and left SFG was positively correlated with the 17-item Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HRSD-17) scores. The SVM results showed that increased fALFF in the left mid cingulum, right precuneus, and left SFG exhibited high diagnostic accuracy of 72.92% (315/432), 71.76% (310/432), and 73.84% (319/432), respectively. The highest diagnostic accuracy of 76.39% (330/432) was demonstrated for the combination of increased fALFF in the right precuneus and left SFG, along with a sensitivity of 84.34% (167/198), and a specificity of 70.51% (165/234).

Conclusion: Increased fALFF in the left mid cingulum, right precuneus, and left SFG may serve as a neuroimaging marker for first-episode MDD. The use of the increased fALFF in the right precuneus and left SFG in combination showed the best diagnostic value.

Aberrant Changes in Cortical Complexity in Right-Onset Versus Left-Onset Parkinson's Disease in Early-Stage

There is increasing evidence to show that motor symptom lateralization in Parkinson’s disease (PD) is linked to non-motor features, progression, and prognosis of the disease. However, few studies have reported the difference in cortical complexity between patients with left-onset of PD (LPD) and right-onset of PD (RPD). This study aimed to investigate the differences in the cortical complexity between early-stage LPD and RPD. High-resolution T1-weighted magnetic resonance images of the brain were acquired in 24 patients with LPD, 34 patients with RPD, and 37 age- and sex-matched healthy controls (HCs). Cortical complexity including gyrification index, fractal dimension (FD), and sulcal depth was analyzed using surface-based morphometry via CAT12/SPM12. Familywise error (FWE) peak-level correction at p < 0.05 was performed for significance testing. In patients with RPD, we found decreased mean FD and mean sulcal depth in the banks of the left superior temporal sulcus (STS) compared with LPD and HCs. The mean FD in the left superior temporal gyrus (STG) was decreased in RPD compared with HCs. However, in patients with LPD, we did not identify significantly abnormal cortical complex change compared with HCs. Moreover, we observed that the mean FD in STG was negatively correlated with the 17-item Hamilton Depression Scale (HAMD) among the three groups. Our findings support the specific influence of asymmetrical motor symptoms in cortical complexity in early-stage PD and reveal that the banks of left STS and left STG might play a crucial role in RPD.

Associations of subclinical cerebral small vessel disease and processing speed in non-demented subjects: A 7-year study

Markers of cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD) have previously been associated with age-related cognitive decline. Using longitudinal data of cognitively healthy, older adults (N = 216, mean age at baseline = 70.9 years), we investigated baseline status and change in white matter hyperintensities (WMH) (total, periventricular, deep), normal appearing white matter (NAWM), brain parenchyma volume (BPV) and processing speed over seven years as well as the impact of different covariates by applying latent growth curve (LGC) models. Generally, we revealed a complex pattern of associations between the different CSVD markers. More specifically, we observed that changes of deep WMH (dWMH), as compared to periventricular WMH (pWMH), were more strongly related to the changes of other CSVD markers and also to baseline processing speed performance. Further, the number of lacunes rather than their volume reflected the severity of CSVD. With respect to the studied covariates, we revealed that higher education had a protective effect on subsequent total WMH, pWMH, lacunar number, NAWM volume, and processing speed performance. The indication of antihypertensive drugs was associated with lower lacunar number and volume at baseline and the indication of antihypercholesterolemic drugs came along with higher processing speed performance at baseline. In summary, our results confirm previous findings, and extend them by providing information on true within-person changes, relationships between the different CSVD markers and brain-behavior associations. The moderate to strong associations between changes of the different CSVD markers indicate a common pathological relationship and, thus, support multidimensional treatment strategies.

Sex differences in the association between basal serum cortisol concentrations and cortical thickness

Background

Basal cortisol concentrations vary between men and women. Likewise, previous findings suggest stress-related cortical thickness alterations. Thus, we aimed at elucidating sex differences in the association between serum cortisol concentrations and cortical thickness.

Methods

Data of 2594 participants (55.55% male; mean age = 53.55 years ± 13.17 years) of the general population were used to investigate sex differences in basal serum cortisol concentrations and associations of serum cortisol concentrations with global and regional cortical thickness. The validity of the results was tested by including sex hormone concentrations as a biological and childhood maltreatment and depressive symptoms as a psychological confounder.

Results

Basal serum cortisol concentrations were higher in men than in women (β = -0.158, t₍₂₅₇₅₎ = -6.852, p = 9.056e-12). Sex differences in serum cortisol concentrations were diminished by including serum concentrations of testosterone, estrone, or estradiol in the models. In men but not in women, serum cortisol concentrations were inversely associated with the global cortical thickness (men: β = -0.064, t₍₁₄₁₂₎ = -3.010, p = .003; women: β = -0.016, t₍₁₁₃₁₎ = -0.607, p = .544). Additionally, these effects were observed in eleven cortical regions after adjusting for multiple testing. The associations were independent of childhood maltreatment and depressive symptoms.

Conclusion

Sex differences in serum cortisol concentrations and the association between serum cortisol concentrations and cortical thickness suggest important sex-specific effects of stress on the brain. Future studies should integrate the interaction between the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis in sex-stratified analyses.

Neural Substrates of Psychotic Depression: Findings From the Global ECT-MRI Research Collaboration

Psychotic major depression (PMD) is hypothesized to be a distinct clinical entity from nonpsychotic major depression (NPMD). However, neurobiological evidence supporting this notion is scarce. The aim of this study is to identify gray matter volume (GMV) differences between PMD and NPMD and their longitudinal change following electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data from 8 independent sites in the Global ECT-MRI Research Collaboration (GEMRIC) database (n = 108; 56 PMD and 52 NPMD; mean age 71.7 in PMD and 70.2 in NPMD) were analyzed. All participants underwent MRI before and after ECT. First, cross-sectional whole-brain voxel-wise GMV comparisons between PMD and NPMD were conducted at both time points. Second, in a flexible factorial model, a main effect of time and a group-by-time interaction were examined to identify longitudinal effects of ECT on GMV and longitudinal differential effects of ECT between PMD and NPMD, respectively. Compared with NPMD, PMD showed lower GMV in the prefrontal, temporal and parietal cortex before ECT; PMD showed lower GMV in the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) after ECT. Although there was a significant main effect of time on GMV in several brain regions in both PMD and NPMD, there was no significant group-by-time interaction. Lower GMV in the MPFC was consistently identified in PMD, suggesting this may be a trait-like neural substrate of PMD. Longitudinal effect of ECT on GMV may not explain superior ECT response in PMD, and further investigation is needed.

Association between resilience and cortical thickness in the posterior cingulate cortex and the temporal pole in Japanese older people: A population-based cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Resilience is a crucial factor preventing the onset of mental illness and contributing to the well-being and healthy longevity, whose neural bases are not fully elucidated in older people. The present study aimed to identify the cortical thickness associating with resilience in older adults.

METHODS

This is a part of the cross-sectional Arakawa geriatric cohort study for people aged 65 years or older, consisting of 1001 individuals. A Self-Reported Resilience Scale (RS), neuropsychological batteries, face-to-face interviews for diagnosis, and a three-dimensional T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging were conducted. Cortical thickness was computed by the FreeSurfer. The relationships among cortical thickness, total RS score, and clinico-demographic data were investigated using univariate and multivariable regression analyses.

RESULTS

The total RS score was correlated with age, education, and scores of the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) in univariate analyses. The total RS score was associated with cortical thicknesses in the left posterior cingulate (β [95 % CI of B] = 0.07 [0.16-14.84]) and the left temporal pole (β [95 % CI of B] = 0.08 [0.63-9.93]) after adjusting sex, age, imaging acquisition site, education, MMSE and GDS scores, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, diabetes mellitus, Barthel index, BMI, and living situation in multivariable regression analyses.

CONCLUSION

The present analyses suggest that the resilience capacity may be related to the cortical thickness in the posterior cingulate and temporal cortices in older adults. Our findings warrant further longitudinal studies to confirm the causal relationship between stress events, resilience, and brain structures.

Telomeres: the role of shortening and senescence in major depressive disorder and its therapeutic implications

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is one of the most prevalent and debilitating psychiatric disorders, with a large number of patients not showing an effective therapeutic response to available treatments. Several biopsychosocial factors, such as stress in childhood and throughout life, and factors related to biological aging, may increase the susceptibility to MDD development. Included in critical biological processes related to aging and underlying biological mechanisms associated with MDD is the shortening of telomeres and changes in telomerase activity. This comprehensive review discusses studies that assessed the length of telomeres or telomerase activity and function in peripheral blood cells and brain tissues of MDD individuals. Also, results from in vitro protocols and animal models of stress and depressive-like behaviors were included. We also expand our discussion to include the role of telomere biology as it relates to other relevant biological mechanisms, such as the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, oxidative stress, inflammation, genetics, and epigenetic changes. In the text and the discussion, conflicting results in the literature were observed, especially considering the size of telomeres in the central nervous system, on which there are different protocols with divergent results in the literature. Finally, the context of this review is considering cell signaling, transcription factors, and neurotransmission, which are involved in MDD and can be underlying to senescence, telomere shortening, and telomerase functions.

Cerebrovascular Disease and Depressive Symptomatology in Individuals With Subjective Cognitive Decline: A Community-Based Study

Subjective cognitive decline (SCD) may be the first sign of Alzheimer's disease (AD), but it can also reflect other pathologies such as cerebrovascular disease or conditions like depressive symptomatology. The role of depressive symptomatology in SCD is controversial. We investigated the association between depressive symptomatology, cerebrovascular disease, and SCD. We recruited 225 cognitively unimpaired individuals from a prospective community-based study [mean age (SD) = 54.64 (10.18); age range 35-77 years; 55% women; 123 individuals with one or more subjective cognitive complaints, 102 individuals with zero complaints]. SCD was assessed with a scale of 9 memory and non-memory subjective complaints. Depressive symptomatology was assessed with established questionnaires. Cerebrovascular disease was assessed with magnetic resonance imaging markers of white matter signal abnormalities (WMSA) and mean diffusivity (MD). We combined correlation, multiple regression, and mediation analyses to investigate the association between depressive symptomatology, cerebrovascular disease, and SCD. We found that SCD was associated with more cerebrovascular disease, older age, and increased depressive symptomatology. In turn, depressive symptomatology was not associated with cerebrovascular disease. Variability in MD was mediated by WMSA burden, presumably reflecting cerebrovascular disease. We conclude that, in our community-based cohort, depressive symptomatology is associated with SCD but not with cerebrovascular disease. In addition, depressive symptomatology did not influence the association between cerebrovascular disease and SCD. We suggest that therapeutic interventions for depressive symptomatology could alleviate the psychological burden of negative emotions in people with SCD, and intervening on vascular risk factors to reduce cerebrovascular disease should be tested as an opportunity to minimize neurodegeneration in SCD individuals from the community.

Depression and executive functioning bidirectionally impair one another across 9 years: Evidence from within-person latent change and cross-lagged models

BACKGROUND

Scar and vulnerability models assert that increased psychopathology may predict subsequent executive functioning (EF) deficits (and vice versa) over protracted timescales, yet most prior work on this topic has been cross-sectional. Thus, we tested the within- and between-person relations between EF, depression, and anxiety.

METHODS

Older adult participants (n = 856) were assessed across four waves, approximately 2 years apart. Performance-based EF and caregiver-rated symptom measures were administered. Bivariate latent change score and random-intercept cross-lagged panel models were conducted.

RESULTS

Within persons, random-intercept cross-lagged panel models revealed that prior greater depression forecasted lower subsequent EF, and vice versa (d = -0.292 vs. -0.292). Bivariate dual latent change score models showed that within-person rise in depression predicted EF decreases, and vice versa (d = -0.245 vs. -0.245). No within-person, cross-lagged, EF-anxiety relations emerged. Further, significant negative between-person EF-symptom relations were observed (d = -0.264 to -0.395).

CONCLUSION

Prospective, within-person findings offer some evidence for developmental scar and vulnerability models.

Body mass index and variability in hippocampal volume in youth with major depressive disorder

BACKGROUND

The hippocampus has been implicated in major depressive disorder (MDD), in both adults and youth. However, possible sources of variability for the hippocampus have not been well delineated. Here, we explored the relationship between body mass index (BMI) and hippocampal volume in youth with MDD.

METHODS

Twenty-two controls (9 male, 13 female, 12-24 years), 24 youth with MDD and normal BMI (12 male, 12 female, 14-24 years), and 20 youth with MDD and high BMI (14 male, 6 female, 13-22 years) underwent magnetic resonance (MR) imaging and spectroscopy (1H-MRS). Hippocampal volume was determined through manual tracing of high-resolution anatomical T1 scans, and LCModel quantified neurochemical concentrations. Intracranial volume was used as a covariate in analysis to control for effects of brain volume on hippocampus.

RESULTS

In youth with MDD and normal BMI, right hippocampal volume was reduced (p = 0.006, Bonferroni) and a trend for reduced left hippocampal volume was noted when compared to healthy controls (p = 0.054, Bonferroni). Left hippocampal volumes were negatively associated with BMI in youth with MDD and high BMI group (r = -0.593, p = 0.006). No associations were found between the right hippocampus and BMI and there were no group differences for metabolite concentrations.

LIMITATIONS

Larger sample sizes would enable researchers to explore overweight vs obese groups and effect of sex in MDD-BMI groups.

CONCLUSIONS

BMI may account for some of the variability observed in previous studies of hippocampal volume in MDD, and therefore BMI impacts should be considered in future analyses.

Impaired attention in patients with adrenal insufficiency - Impact of unphysiological therapy

Patients with adrenal insufficiency (AI) are treated with glucocorticoid (GC) replacement therapy. Although current GC regimens aim to mimic the physiological circadian rhythm of cortisol secretion, temporary phases of hypo- and hypercortisolism are common undesired effects. Both conditions may lead to impairment in cognitive functioning. At present, little is known about cognitive functioning in patients with AI, especially regarding the effects of dosage and duration of glucocorticoid replacement therapy. There is also little data available comparing the effects of GC therapy on patients with primary (PAI) and secondary (SAI) forms of AI. In this study 40 adults with AI (21 PAI, 19 SAI) substituted with hydrocortisone (HC) and 20 matched healthy controls underwent 10 different neuropsychological tests evaluating memory, executive functioning, attention, psychomotricity and general intellectual ability. Furthermore demographic data, dosage of HC, duration of therapy and co-medication were evaluated. Patients were compared in groups with regard to diagnosis, dosage and duration of therapy. Patients showed worse performance than controls in attention, though patients with PAI and SAI seemed to be equally impaired. There were no limitations in intellectual abilities or memory function. High dosage of HC was found to impair attention, visual-motoric skills and executive functioning while the duration of therapy showed no significant impact on cognitive functions. In conclusion, our study showed that AI patients on HC replacement therapy reveal significant cognitive deficits concerning attention. There was no difference between patients with PAI and SAI. Furthermore, high dosage seems to have a negative impact especially on executive functioning.

Lack of Evidence for a Relationship Between the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal and the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Thyroid Axis in Adolescent Depression

In adults with major depressive disorder (MDD), a dysfunction between the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis has been shown, but the interaction of both axes has not yet been studied in adolescent major depressive disorder (MDD). Data from 273 adolescents diagnosed with MDD from two single center cross-sectional studies were used for analysis. Serum levels of thyrotropin (TSH), free levothyroxine (fT4), and cortisol were determined as indicators of basal HPT and HPA axis functioning and compared to that of adolescent controls by t-tests. Quantile regression was employed in the sample of adolescents with MDD to investigate the relationship between both axes in the normal as well as the pathological range of cortisol levels, considering confounders of both axes. In adolescent MDD, cortisol levels and TSH levels were significantly elevated in comparison to controls (p = <.001, d = 1.35, large effect size, and p = <.001, d = 0.79, moderate effect size, respectively). There was a positive linear relationship between TSH and cortisol (p = .003, d = 0.25, small effect size) at the median of cortisol levels (50^th percentile). However, no relationship between TSH and cortisol was found in hypercortisolemia (cortisol levels at the 97.5^th percentile). These findings imply that HPT and HPA axis dysfunction is common in adolescents with MDD and that function of both axes is only loosely related. Moreover, the regulation of the HPA and HPT axis are likely subjected to age-related maturational adjustments since findings of this study differ from those reported in adults.

Changes in Functional Connectivity of Specific Cerebral Regions in Patients with Toothache: A Resting-State Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study

Objective

In order to further study the changes of cerebral functional connectivity in patients with toothache (TA), this study used the resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) technique and degree centrality (DC) analysis method.

Methods

Eighteen TA patients (8 males, 10 females) and 18 healthy individuals of similar age, sex, and educational levels were recruited as healthy controls (HCs) to take part in the study, and all underwent rs-fMRI examination. And DC technology was used to compare the state of their cerebral spontaneous functional activity. In order to compare the average DC values of the TA group and HC group, we used independent two-sample t-test and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve to compare the difference of DC values between the two groups, so as to distinguish the accuracy of TA diagnosis. Finally, we also carry out Pearson's linear regression analysis.

Results

The TA group showed higher DC values in the right lingual gyrus (RLG), right precentral gyrus, and left middle temporal gyrus (LMTG) than HCs. Moreover, ROC curve analysis indicated that the area under the curve (AUC) of each cerebral region studied had high accuracy. In addition, linear analysis indicated that the DC values of the RLG were positively correlated with the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) (r = 0.844, p < 0.001), and the DC values of the LMTG were positively correlated with the visual analogue scale (VAS) (r = 0.723, p < 0.001).

Conclusion

TA generates abnormal changes in the intrinsic activity patterns of pain-related and vision-related areas of the cerebral cortex, which will be beneficial to reveal the underlying neuropathic mechanisms.

International Mind, Activities and Urban Places (iMAP) study: methods of a cohort study on environmental and lifestyle influences on brain and cognitive health

INTRODUCTION

Numerous studies have found associations between characteristics of urban environments and risk factors for dementia and cognitive decline, such as physical inactivity and obesity. However, the contribution of urban environments to brain and cognitive health has been seldom examined directly. This cohort study investigates the extent to which and how a wide range of characteristics of urban environments influence brain and cognitive health via lifestyle behaviours in mid-aged and older adults in three cities across three continents.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

Participants aged 50-79 years and living in preselected areas stratified by walkability, air pollution and socioeconomic status are being recruited in Melbourne (Australia), Barcelona (Spain) and Hong Kong (China) (n=1800 total; 600 per site). Two assessments taken 24 months apart will capture changes in brain and cognitive health. Cognitive function is gauged with a battery of eight standardised tests. Brain health is assessed using MRI scans in a subset of participants. Information on participants' visited locations is collected via an interactive web-based mapping application and smartphone geolocation data. Environmental characteristics of visited locations, including the built and natural environments and their by-products (e.g., air pollution), are assessed using geographical information systems, online environmental audits and self-reports. Data on travel and lifestyle behaviours (e.g., physical and social activities) and participants' characteristics (e.g., sociodemographics) are collected using objective and/or self-report measures.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The study has been approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of the Australian Catholic University, the Institutional Review Board of the University of Hong Kong and the Parc de Salut Mar Clinical Research Ethics Committee of the Government of Catalonia. Results will be communicated through standard scientific channels. Methods will be made freely available via a study-dedicated website.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

ACTRN12619000817145.

Depressive disorders in the elderly and dementia: An update

The relationship between depressive disorders in the elderly and dementia, particularly Alzheimer’s disease (AD), is highly complex. While the nature of this relationship is still a matter of debate, differential diagnosis and treatment remain a great clinical challenge. We review recent findings on the conundrum of depressive disorders in the elderly and AD. There is a biological continuum between depressive disorders in the elderly – or at least a subgroup of them – and AD. While elderly subjects with depression and patients with AD exhibit higher circulating levels of pro-inflammatory molecules and lower BDNF than matched controls, CSF levels of Aβ42 can discriminate AD from depressive disorders in the elderly. The role of antidepressant treatment as a strategy to minimize the risk of AD remains to be established.

Late-life cognitive decline is associated with hippocampal volume, above and beyond its associations with traditional neuropathologic indices

INTRODUCTION

Reduced hippocampal volume is associated with late-life cognitive decline, but prior studies have not determined whether this association persists after accounting for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other neuropathologies.

METHODS

Participants were 531 deceased older adults from community-based cohort studies of aging who had undergone annual cognitive evaluations. At death, brain tissue underwent neuropathologic examination and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Linear mixed models examined whether hippocampal volume measured via MRI accounted for variation in decline rate of global cognition and five cognitive domains, above and beyond neuropathologic indices.

RESULTS

Demographics and indices of AD, cerebrovascular disease, Lewy body disease, hippocampal sclerosis, TDP-43, and atherosclerosis accounted for 42.6% of the variation in global cognitive decline. Hippocampal volume accounted for an additional 5.4% of this variation and made similar contributions in four of the five cognitive domains.

DISCUSSION

Hippocampal volume is associated with late-life cognitive decline, above and beyond contributions from common neuropathologic indices.

Cortical thickening in remitters compared to non-remitters with major depressive disorder following 8-week antidepressant treatment

OBJECTIVE

Little is known about the relationship between antidepressant treatment outcomes and underlying neurobiological mechanisms in patients with major depressive disorder (MDD). In this prospective study, we aimed to investigate how cortical thickness and subcortical volumes differed between remitter and non-remitter patients with MDD.

METHODS

Fifty-eight patients with MDD with a score of at least 17 on the 17-item Hamilton Depression Rating Scale and free of medication for at least 2 months and 41 healthy controls underwent structural magnetic resonance imaging. At the baseline, patients with MDD started on either selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, or vortioxetine. After 8-week antidepressant treatment, patients with MDD were scanned using the same MRI protocol. Structural images were analyzed using the FreeSurfer software package (version 6.0).

RESULTS

Longitudinal analyses showed remitter patients with MDD had significantly greater right cerebral cortex thickening in six significant clusters, including superior temporal cortex, precuneus, rostral middle frontal cortex, pars opercularis (although the cluster extends into the insula), inferior parietal cortex, and supramarginal cortex than in non-remitter patients with MDD.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that distinct antidepressant treatment-related structural alterations in brain regions implicated in cognition, emotion regulation, and rumination might be associated with treatment outcome.

Mood episodes are associated with increased cortical thinning: A longitudinal study of bipolar disorder type II

OBJECTIVES

Previous studies found evidence for thinner frontotemporal cortices in bipolar disorder (BD), yet whether this represents a stable disease trait or an effect of mood episodes remains unknown. Here, we assessed the reproducibility of thinner frontotemporal cortices in BD type II, compared longitudinal changes in cortical thickness between individuals with BD type II and healthy controls (HCs), and examined the effect of mood episodes on cortical thickness change.

METHODS

Thirty-three HCs and 29 individuals with BD type II underwent 3T magnetic resonance imaging at baseline, as published previously, and 2.4 years later, at follow-up. Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses of cortical thickness were performed using Freesurfer, and relationships with mood episodes from baseline to follow-up were assessed.

RESULTS

Individuals with BD type II had thinner left and right prefrontal and left temporal cortex clusters at follow-up (all corrected P < 0.001), consistent with baseline results. Both groups showed widespread longitudinal cortical thinning, and patients had increased thinning in a left temporal cortex cluster compared to HCs (corrected P < 0.001). Patients with more (>2) depressive episodes between baseline and follow-up had greater left temporal cortical thinning than patients with fewer depressive episodes (corrected P < 0.05). In addition, patients with more depressive episodes had greater thinning in bilateral ventromedial prefrontal clusters relative to HCs (uncorrected P < 0.05), yet these results did not survive correction for multiple comparisons.

CONCLUSIONS

Together, these findings support reduced frontotemporal cortical thickness in BD type II and provide the first preliminary evidence for an association between depressive episodes and increased cortical thinning.

MECHANISMS IN ENDOCRINOLOGY: Anorexia nervosa and endocrinology: a clinical update

Anorexia nervosa is a syndrome, that is collections of symptoms, which is not defined by its etiology. The severe cases are intractable. The syndrome is associated with multiple, profound endocrine alterations which may be adaptive, reactive or etiologic. Adaptive changes potentially may be inappropriate in clinical settings such as inpatient intensive re-nutrition or in a setting with somatic comorbidity. Electrolyte levels must be closely monitored during the refeeding process, and the need for weight gain must be balanced against potentially fatal refeeding complications. An important focus of clinical research should be to identify biomarkers associated with different stages of weight loss and re-nutrition combined with psychometric data. Besides well-established peripheral endocrine actions, several hormones also are released directly to different brain areas, where they may exert behavioral and psychogenic actions that could offer therapeutic targets. We need reliable biomarkers for predicting outcome and to ensure safe re-nutrition, however, first of all we need them to explore the metabolism in anorexia nervosa to open new avenues with therapeutic targets. A breakthrough in our understanding and treatment of this whimsical disease remains. Considering this, the aim of the present review is to provide an updated overview of the many endocrine changes in a clinical perspective.

What Does Electroencephalography Coherence Tell Us about Memory Encoding in Adolescents at High Risk of Suicide?

BACKGROUND

Suicide is known to be closely related to depression, which is accompanied by cognitive decline.

OBJECTIVE

This study examined whether memory performance and cortical networking differ between high suicide risk and control groups depending on task difficulty.

METHODS

The participants were 28 high school students consisting of 14 suicide risk and 14 control subjects. Real-time electroencephalography signals were collected during a working memory task. Inter- and intrahemispheric coherences were analyzed.

RESULTS

Higher cortical networking during memory encoding was found in suicide risk adolescents compared to the control group. An increase in task difficulty heightened interhemispheric coherence.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher cortical networking in suicide risk adolescents seems to reflect activation of compensatory mechanisms in an attempt to minimize behavioral decline.