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Slivicki RA, Earnest T, Chang YH, Pareta R, Casey E, Li JN, Tooley J, Abiraman K, Vachez YM, Wolf DK, Sackey JT, Kumar Pitchai D, Moore T, Gereau RW, Copits BA, Kravitz AV, Creed MC. Oral oxycodone self-administration leads to features of opioid misuse in male and female mice. Addict Biol 2023; 28:e13253. [PMID: 36577735 DOI: 10.1111/adb.13253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Use of prescription opioids, particularly oxycodone, is an initiating factor driving the current opioid epidemic. There are several challenges with modelling oxycodone abuse. First, prescription opioids including oxycodone are orally self-administered and have different pharmacokinetics and dynamics than morphine or fentanyl, which have been more commonly used in rodent research. This oral route of administration determines the pharmacokinetic profile, which then influences the establishment of drug-reinforcement associations in animals. Moreover, the pattern of intake and the environment in which addictive drugs are self-administered are critical determinants of the levels of drug intake, of behavioural sensitization and of propensity to relapse behaviour. These are all important considerations when modelling prescription opioid use, which is characterized by continuous drug access in familiar environments. Thus, to model features of prescription opioid use and the transition to abuse, we designed an oral, homecage-based oxycodone self-administration paradigm. Mice voluntarily self-administer oxycodone in this paradigm without any taste modification such as sweeteners, and the majority exhibit preference for oxycodone, escalation of intake, physical signs of dependence and reinstatement of seeking after withdrawal. In addition, a subset of animals demonstrate drug taking that is resistant to aversive consequences. This model is therefore translationally relevant and useful for studying the neurobiological substrates of prescription opioid abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard A Slivicki
- Washington University Pain Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Tom Earnest
- Washington University Pain Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Yu-Hsuan Chang
- Washington University Pain Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Rajesh Pareta
- Washington University Pain Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Eric Casey
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Jun-Nan Li
- Washington University Pain Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Jessica Tooley
- Washington University Pain Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Kavitha Abiraman
- Washington University Pain Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Yvan M Vachez
- Washington University Pain Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Drew K Wolf
- Washington University Pain Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Jason T Sackey
- Washington University Pain Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | | | | | - Robert W Gereau
- Washington University Pain Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Bryan A Copits
- Washington University Pain Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Alexxai V Kravitz
- Washington University Pain Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Meaghan C Creed
- Washington University Pain Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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6
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Beierle JA, Yao EJ, Goldstein SI, Lynch WB, Scotellaro JL, Shah AA, Sena KD, Wong AL, Linnertz CL, Averin O, Moody DE, Reilly CA, Peltz G, Emili A, Ferris MT, Bryant CD. Zhx2 Is a Candidate Gene Underlying Oxymorphone Metabolite Brain Concentration Associated with State-Dependent Oxycodone Reward. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2022; 382:167-180. [PMID: 35688478 PMCID: PMC9341249 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.122.001217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the pharmacogenomics of opioid metabolism and behavior is vital to therapeutic success, as mutations can dramatically alter therapeutic efficacy and addiction liability. We found robust, sex-dependent BALB/c substrain differences in oxycodone behaviors and whole brain concentration of oxycodone metabolites. BALB/cJ females showed robust state-dependent oxycodone reward learning as measured via conditioned place preference when compared with the closely related BALB/cByJ substrain. Accordingly, BALB/cJ females also showed a robust increase in brain concentration of the inactive metabolite noroxycodone and the active metabolite oxymorphone compared with BALB/cByJ mice. Oxymorphone is a highly potent, full agonist at the mu opioid receptor that could enhance drug-induced interoception and state-dependent oxycodone reward learning. Quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping in a BALB/c F2 reduced complexity cross revealed one major QTL on chromosome 15 underlying brain oxymorphone concentration that explained 32% of the female variance. BALB/cJ and BALB/cByJ differ by fewer than 10,000 variants, which can greatly facilitate candidate gene/variant identification. Hippocampal and striatal cis-expression QTL (eQTL) and exon-level eQTL analysis identified Zhx2, a candidate gene coding for a transcriptional repressor with a private BALB/cJ retroviral insertion that reduces Zhx2 expression and sex-dependent dysregulation of cytochrome P450 enzymes. Whole brain proteomics corroborated the Zhx2 eQTL and identified upregulated CYP2D11 that could increase brain oxymorphone in BALB/cJ females. To summarize, Zhx2 is a highly promising candidate gene underlying brain oxycodone metabolite levels. Future studies will validate Zhx2 and its site of action using reciprocal gene editing and tissue-specific viral manipulations in BALB/c substrains. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Our findings show that genetic variation can result in sex-specific alterations in whole brain concentration of a bioactive opioid metabolite after oxycodone administration, reinforcing the need for sex as a biological factor in pharmacogenomic studies. The cooccurrence of female-specific increased oxymorphone and state-dependent reward learning suggests that this minor yet potent and efficacious metabolite of oxycodone could increase opioid interoception and drug-cue associative learning of opioid reward, which has implications for cue-induced relapse of drug-seeking behavior and for precision pharmacogenetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob A Beierle
- Ph.D. Program in Biomolecular Pharmacology (J.A.B., S.I.G.), Laboratory of Addiction Genetics, Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and Psychiatry (J.A.B., E.J.Y., W.B.L., J.L.S., A.A.S., K.D.S., A.L.W., C.D.B.), Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Network Systems Biology (S.I.G., A.E.), and Graduate Program in Neuroscience (W.B.L), Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; Transformative Training Program in Addiction Science (TTPAS) (J.A.B., W.B.L.) and Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program (J.L.S., K.D.S.), Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (C.L.L., M.T.F.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicity, Center for Human Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah (O.A., D.E.M., C.A.R.); and Department of Anesthesiology, Pain, and Preoperative Medicine Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California (G.P.)
| | - Emily J Yao
- Ph.D. Program in Biomolecular Pharmacology (J.A.B., S.I.G.), Laboratory of Addiction Genetics, Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and Psychiatry (J.A.B., E.J.Y., W.B.L., J.L.S., A.A.S., K.D.S., A.L.W., C.D.B.), Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Network Systems Biology (S.I.G., A.E.), and Graduate Program in Neuroscience (W.B.L), Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; Transformative Training Program in Addiction Science (TTPAS) (J.A.B., W.B.L.) and Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program (J.L.S., K.D.S.), Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (C.L.L., M.T.F.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicity, Center for Human Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah (O.A., D.E.M., C.A.R.); and Department of Anesthesiology, Pain, and Preoperative Medicine Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California (G.P.)
| | - Stanley I Goldstein
- Ph.D. Program in Biomolecular Pharmacology (J.A.B., S.I.G.), Laboratory of Addiction Genetics, Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and Psychiatry (J.A.B., E.J.Y., W.B.L., J.L.S., A.A.S., K.D.S., A.L.W., C.D.B.), Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Network Systems Biology (S.I.G., A.E.), and Graduate Program in Neuroscience (W.B.L), Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; Transformative Training Program in Addiction Science (TTPAS) (J.A.B., W.B.L.) and Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program (J.L.S., K.D.S.), Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (C.L.L., M.T.F.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicity, Center for Human Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah (O.A., D.E.M., C.A.R.); and Department of Anesthesiology, Pain, and Preoperative Medicine Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California (G.P.)
| | - William B Lynch
- Ph.D. Program in Biomolecular Pharmacology (J.A.B., S.I.G.), Laboratory of Addiction Genetics, Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and Psychiatry (J.A.B., E.J.Y., W.B.L., J.L.S., A.A.S., K.D.S., A.L.W., C.D.B.), Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Network Systems Biology (S.I.G., A.E.), and Graduate Program in Neuroscience (W.B.L), Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; Transformative Training Program in Addiction Science (TTPAS) (J.A.B., W.B.L.) and Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program (J.L.S., K.D.S.), Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (C.L.L., M.T.F.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicity, Center for Human Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah (O.A., D.E.M., C.A.R.); and Department of Anesthesiology, Pain, and Preoperative Medicine Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California (G.P.)
| | - Julia L Scotellaro
- Ph.D. Program in Biomolecular Pharmacology (J.A.B., S.I.G.), Laboratory of Addiction Genetics, Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and Psychiatry (J.A.B., E.J.Y., W.B.L., J.L.S., A.A.S., K.D.S., A.L.W., C.D.B.), Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Network Systems Biology (S.I.G., A.E.), and Graduate Program in Neuroscience (W.B.L), Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; Transformative Training Program in Addiction Science (TTPAS) (J.A.B., W.B.L.) and Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program (J.L.S., K.D.S.), Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (C.L.L., M.T.F.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicity, Center for Human Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah (O.A., D.E.M., C.A.R.); and Department of Anesthesiology, Pain, and Preoperative Medicine Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California (G.P.)
| | - Anyaa A Shah
- Ph.D. Program in Biomolecular Pharmacology (J.A.B., S.I.G.), Laboratory of Addiction Genetics, Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and Psychiatry (J.A.B., E.J.Y., W.B.L., J.L.S., A.A.S., K.D.S., A.L.W., C.D.B.), Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Network Systems Biology (S.I.G., A.E.), and Graduate Program in Neuroscience (W.B.L), Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; Transformative Training Program in Addiction Science (TTPAS) (J.A.B., W.B.L.) and Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program (J.L.S., K.D.S.), Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (C.L.L., M.T.F.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicity, Center for Human Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah (O.A., D.E.M., C.A.R.); and Department of Anesthesiology, Pain, and Preoperative Medicine Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California (G.P.)
| | - Katherine D Sena
- Ph.D. Program in Biomolecular Pharmacology (J.A.B., S.I.G.), Laboratory of Addiction Genetics, Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and Psychiatry (J.A.B., E.J.Y., W.B.L., J.L.S., A.A.S., K.D.S., A.L.W., C.D.B.), Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Network Systems Biology (S.I.G., A.E.), and Graduate Program in Neuroscience (W.B.L), Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; Transformative Training Program in Addiction Science (TTPAS) (J.A.B., W.B.L.) and Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program (J.L.S., K.D.S.), Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (C.L.L., M.T.F.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicity, Center for Human Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah (O.A., D.E.M., C.A.R.); and Department of Anesthesiology, Pain, and Preoperative Medicine Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California (G.P.)
| | - Alyssa L Wong
- Ph.D. Program in Biomolecular Pharmacology (J.A.B., S.I.G.), Laboratory of Addiction Genetics, Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and Psychiatry (J.A.B., E.J.Y., W.B.L., J.L.S., A.A.S., K.D.S., A.L.W., C.D.B.), Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Network Systems Biology (S.I.G., A.E.), and Graduate Program in Neuroscience (W.B.L), Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; Transformative Training Program in Addiction Science (TTPAS) (J.A.B., W.B.L.) and Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program (J.L.S., K.D.S.), Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (C.L.L., M.T.F.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicity, Center for Human Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah (O.A., D.E.M., C.A.R.); and Department of Anesthesiology, Pain, and Preoperative Medicine Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California (G.P.)
| | - Colton L Linnertz
- Ph.D. Program in Biomolecular Pharmacology (J.A.B., S.I.G.), Laboratory of Addiction Genetics, Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and Psychiatry (J.A.B., E.J.Y., W.B.L., J.L.S., A.A.S., K.D.S., A.L.W., C.D.B.), Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Network Systems Biology (S.I.G., A.E.), and Graduate Program in Neuroscience (W.B.L), Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; Transformative Training Program in Addiction Science (TTPAS) (J.A.B., W.B.L.) and Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program (J.L.S., K.D.S.), Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (C.L.L., M.T.F.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicity, Center for Human Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah (O.A., D.E.M., C.A.R.); and Department of Anesthesiology, Pain, and Preoperative Medicine Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California (G.P.)
| | - Olga Averin
- Ph.D. Program in Biomolecular Pharmacology (J.A.B., S.I.G.), Laboratory of Addiction Genetics, Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and Psychiatry (J.A.B., E.J.Y., W.B.L., J.L.S., A.A.S., K.D.S., A.L.W., C.D.B.), Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Network Systems Biology (S.I.G., A.E.), and Graduate Program in Neuroscience (W.B.L), Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; Transformative Training Program in Addiction Science (TTPAS) (J.A.B., W.B.L.) and Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program (J.L.S., K.D.S.), Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (C.L.L., M.T.F.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicity, Center for Human Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah (O.A., D.E.M., C.A.R.); and Department of Anesthesiology, Pain, and Preoperative Medicine Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California (G.P.)
| | - David E Moody
- Ph.D. Program in Biomolecular Pharmacology (J.A.B., S.I.G.), Laboratory of Addiction Genetics, Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and Psychiatry (J.A.B., E.J.Y., W.B.L., J.L.S., A.A.S., K.D.S., A.L.W., C.D.B.), Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Network Systems Biology (S.I.G., A.E.), and Graduate Program in Neuroscience (W.B.L), Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; Transformative Training Program in Addiction Science (TTPAS) (J.A.B., W.B.L.) and Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program (J.L.S., K.D.S.), Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (C.L.L., M.T.F.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicity, Center for Human Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah (O.A., D.E.M., C.A.R.); and Department of Anesthesiology, Pain, and Preoperative Medicine Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California (G.P.)
| | - Christopher A Reilly
- Ph.D. Program in Biomolecular Pharmacology (J.A.B., S.I.G.), Laboratory of Addiction Genetics, Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and Psychiatry (J.A.B., E.J.Y., W.B.L., J.L.S., A.A.S., K.D.S., A.L.W., C.D.B.), Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Network Systems Biology (S.I.G., A.E.), and Graduate Program in Neuroscience (W.B.L), Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; Transformative Training Program in Addiction Science (TTPAS) (J.A.B., W.B.L.) and Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program (J.L.S., K.D.S.), Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (C.L.L., M.T.F.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicity, Center for Human Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah (O.A., D.E.M., C.A.R.); and Department of Anesthesiology, Pain, and Preoperative Medicine Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California (G.P.)
| | - Gary Peltz
- Ph.D. Program in Biomolecular Pharmacology (J.A.B., S.I.G.), Laboratory of Addiction Genetics, Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and Psychiatry (J.A.B., E.J.Y., W.B.L., J.L.S., A.A.S., K.D.S., A.L.W., C.D.B.), Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Network Systems Biology (S.I.G., A.E.), and Graduate Program in Neuroscience (W.B.L), Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; Transformative Training Program in Addiction Science (TTPAS) (J.A.B., W.B.L.) and Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program (J.L.S., K.D.S.), Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (C.L.L., M.T.F.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicity, Center for Human Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah (O.A., D.E.M., C.A.R.); and Department of Anesthesiology, Pain, and Preoperative Medicine Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California (G.P.)
| | - Andrew Emili
- Ph.D. Program in Biomolecular Pharmacology (J.A.B., S.I.G.), Laboratory of Addiction Genetics, Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and Psychiatry (J.A.B., E.J.Y., W.B.L., J.L.S., A.A.S., K.D.S., A.L.W., C.D.B.), Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Network Systems Biology (S.I.G., A.E.), and Graduate Program in Neuroscience (W.B.L), Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; Transformative Training Program in Addiction Science (TTPAS) (J.A.B., W.B.L.) and Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program (J.L.S., K.D.S.), Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (C.L.L., M.T.F.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicity, Center for Human Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah (O.A., D.E.M., C.A.R.); and Department of Anesthesiology, Pain, and Preoperative Medicine Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California (G.P.)
| | - Martin T Ferris
- Ph.D. Program in Biomolecular Pharmacology (J.A.B., S.I.G.), Laboratory of Addiction Genetics, Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and Psychiatry (J.A.B., E.J.Y., W.B.L., J.L.S., A.A.S., K.D.S., A.L.W., C.D.B.), Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Network Systems Biology (S.I.G., A.E.), and Graduate Program in Neuroscience (W.B.L), Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; Transformative Training Program in Addiction Science (TTPAS) (J.A.B., W.B.L.) and Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program (J.L.S., K.D.S.), Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (C.L.L., M.T.F.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicity, Center for Human Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah (O.A., D.E.M., C.A.R.); and Department of Anesthesiology, Pain, and Preoperative Medicine Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California (G.P.)
| | - Camron D Bryant
- Ph.D. Program in Biomolecular Pharmacology (J.A.B., S.I.G.), Laboratory of Addiction Genetics, Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and Psychiatry (J.A.B., E.J.Y., W.B.L., J.L.S., A.A.S., K.D.S., A.L.W., C.D.B.), Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Network Systems Biology (S.I.G., A.E.), and Graduate Program in Neuroscience (W.B.L), Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; Transformative Training Program in Addiction Science (TTPAS) (J.A.B., W.B.L.) and Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program (J.L.S., K.D.S.), Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (C.L.L., M.T.F.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicity, Center for Human Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah (O.A., D.E.M., C.A.R.); and Department of Anesthesiology, Pain, and Preoperative Medicine Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California (G.P.)
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