Dynamics of methane and carbon dioxide emissions in the reclaimed islands of Sundarban mangrove ecosystem, India

Unveiling the impact of anthropogenic wastes on greenhouse gas emissions from the enigmatic mangroves of Indian Sundarban

The greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the mangrove ecosystem due to climate change have been an emerging environmental issue in the present scenario. However, the GHGs, emitted through anthropogenic causes in these vulnerable regions are often neglected. The level of soil pollution has increased due to the uncontrolled disposal of wastes from ports, ferry services, plastics, and metals, emitting huge amounts of GHGs. Here, a novel dynamic model on GHG emission was proposed for the simulation of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions using R programming language, where, anthropogenic and environmental drivers were considered. The CO2 emission was sensitive to HMeff2 (impact rate of heavy metals on microbial respiration process) and MPeff3 (impact rate of microplastics on microbial respiration process). The CH4 dynamics was sensitive to HMeff1 (impact rate of heavy metal on methanogenesis process) and MPeff1 (impact rate of microplastics on methanogenesis process) and the N2O pool was sensitive to N2O dif rt. (N2O diffusion rate). Fish waste, heavy metals, and microplastics are the prime emitters of GHG in the Sundarbans. Control and monitoring of plastics, fish wastes, and heavy metals, and strategic implementation of no-plastic or no-waste zones in line with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) would ensure solutions to the present problem.

Application of structural equation modelling to study complex "blue carbon" cycling in mangrove ecosystems

Blue carbon cycling in mangrove ecosystems is proving to be more complex than previously thought. The objective of this study was the application of structural equation modelling (SEM) to capture such complex and varying data types and provide a holistic understanding of mangrove blue carbon cycling using data from the Indian Sundarban as a test case. We found that SEM was effective at integrating multiple data types and characterizing the processes and variables that regulate the nature and magnitude of CO2 fluxes within a mangrove ecosystem, including atmosphere-hydrosphere, atmosphere-pedosphere, and net ecosystem exchange. Overall, this study finds that atmospheric, water, and soil temperatures were the main and common drivers of CO2 effluxes towards the atmosphere from the entire ecosystem, waterbodies, and soils of mangrove ecosystems, respectively. We conclude that SEM is useful for combining data from different sources, gaining an overarching view of the complex biogeochemical cycling of the blue carbon ecosystems.

Flushing emissions of methane and carbon dioxide from mangrove soils during tidal cycles

Mangroves are transition areas connecting land, freshwater, and the ocean, where a great amount of organic carbon accumulates in the soil, forming a considerable carbon sink. However, the soil might also be a source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This study hypothesized that measuring GHG emissions solely during low tides can represent diurnal GHG emissions in mangroves. Methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions were quantified during tidal cycles using an ultraportable gas analyzer in Kandelia obovata (without pneumatophores) and Avicennia marina (with pneumatophores) mangroves in summer and fall. The results showed that the CH4 fluxes varied greatly during tidal cycles, from -1.25 to 96.24 μmol CH4 m-2 h-1 for K. obovata and from 2.86 to 2662.00 μmol CH4 m-2 h-1 for A. marina. The CO2 fluxes ranged from -4.23 to 20.65 mmol CO2 m-2 h-1 for K. obovata and from 0.09 to 24.69 mmol CO2 m-2 h-1 for A. marina. The diurnal variation in GHG levels in mangroves is predominantly driven by tidal cycles. The peak emissions of CH4 and CO2 were noted at the beginning of the flooding tide, rather than during daytime or nighttime. While the patterns of the CO2 fluxes during tidal cycles were similar between K. obovata and A. marina mangroves, their CH4 flux patterns during the tidal cycles differed. Possibly due to different transport mechanisms, CO2 emissions are primarily influenced by surface soils, whereas CH4 is predominantly emitted from deeper soils, thus being influenced by root structures. To reduce the uncertainty in measuring GHG emissions in mangrove soils during a tidal cycle, it is advisable to increase the number of GHG flux measurements during the period spanning 30 min before and after the beginning of the flooding and ebbing tides.

Carbon Biogeochemistry of the Estuaries Adjoining the Indian Sundarbans Mangrove Ecosystem: A Review

The present study reviewed the carbon-biogeochemistry-related observations concerning CO₂ and CH₄ dynamics in the estuaries adjoining the Indian Sundarbans mangrove ecosystem. The review focused on the partial pressure of CO₂ and CH₄ [pCO_2(water) and pCH_4(water)] and air-water CO₂ and CH₄ fluxes and their physical, biogeochemical, and hydrological drivers. The riverine-freshwater-rich Hooghly estuary has always exhibited higher CO₂ emissions than the marine-water-dominated Sundarbans estuaries. The mangrove sediment porewater and recirculated groundwater were rich in pCO_2(water) and pCH_4(water), enhancing their load in the adjacent estuaries. Freshwater-seawater admixing, photosynthetically active radiation, primary productivity, and porewater/groundwater input were the principal factors that regulated pCO_2(water) and pCH_4(water) and their fluxes. Higher chlorophyll-a concentrations, indicating higher primary production, led to the furnishing of more organic substrates that underwent anaerobic degradation to produce CH₄ in the water column. The northern Bay of Bengal seawater had a high carbonate buffering capacity that reduced the pCO_2(water) and water-to-air CO₂ fluxes in the Sundarbans estuaries. Several authors traced the degradation of organic matter to DIC, mainly following the denitrification pathway (and pathways between aerobic respiration and carbonate dissolution). Overall, this review collated the significant findings on the carbon biogeochemistry of Sundarbans estuaries and discussed the areas that require attention in the future.

Significant reduction of carbon stocks and changes of ecosystem service valuation of Indian Sundarban

The Sundarban mangrove or tidal influenced natural ecosystem is extremely productive and providing multiple goods and services to millions of people. In the last few decades, the quality and quantity of mangrove ecosystem are being deteriorated. The main objectives of this current research are (i) to investigate the ecosystem service values (ESVs) using a time series satellite data (1975, 2000 and 2020) and different unit values (ii) to analyze the dynamic pattern of carbon sequestration through InVEST model and (iii) determination of ESVs change hotspots by Getis-Ord Gi^* method. Here, mangrove forest has the highest ecosystem service value and highest carbon sinker. The total loss of ESVs was estimated 3310.79 million USD during last 45 years in Sundarban Biosphere Reserve (SBR) due to high natural and anthropogenic adversities. InVEST model also revealed that the total static carbon storage over the study area was 48.87, 46.65 and 43.33 Tg for the year 1975, 2000 and 2020 respectively. Total 6313944 mg/6.31Tg loss of carbon has been observed in the case of mangrove forest during the overall study period (1975–2020). So, illegal human encroachment should be strictly (through law and regulations) restricted within Sundarban mangrove ecosystem for the benefits of people.